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A    HISTORY   OF   THE 
ANCIENT   WORLD 


A    PORTION'    OF    THK    PARTHENON    AND    ITS    FRIEZE 


A  HISTORY  OF  THE 
ANCIENT  WORLD 


BY 


GEORGE  STEPHEN  GOODSPEED,  PH.D. 

PROFESSOR   OF  ANCIENT   HISTORY  IN  THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


A 

WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS,   MAPS,   AND  PLANS 


NEW   YORK 
CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 

1904 


COPYRIGHT,  1904,  BY 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


tro 

F.    M.    G. 

TO  WHOSE  COURAGE,   FAITH,  AND  PRACTICAL 

HELP  IN  A  DARK  YEAR,  THIS  VOLUME 

BEARS  ABUNDANT  WITNESS 


2056330 


PREFACE 

This  volume  owes  much  to  a  wide  variety  of  helpers 
Doubtless,  what  may  be  original  in  it  is  of  least  value. 
Accordingly,  the  author  wishes,  first  of  all,  to  make  general 
confession  of  having  drawn  upon  any  stores  of  pedagogical 
wisdom  and  any  treasures  of  scholarship  which  seemed 
to  contribute  to  his  subject.  In  particular,  however, 
special  acknowledgments  are  due  to  some  who  have 
given  personal  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  the  book. 
Professors  F.  B.  Tarbell  and  Gordon  J.  Laing,  of  the 
University  of  Chicago,  have  made  helpful  suggestions 
regarding  the  illustrations.  Frances  Ada  Knox,  Assistant 
in  History  in  the  University  of  Chicago,  has  given  im- 
portant aid  in  the  preparation  of  the  manuscript  and  in 
other  ways.  The  maps,  charts,  and  plans  have  had  the 
skilful  and  scholarly  attention  of  Mr.  Harold  H.  Nelson, 
now  of  the  Syrian  Protestant  College,  of  Beyrout.  The 
book  has  also  profited  from  the  suggestions  of  a  number 
of  teachers  in  East  and  West  who  have  read  it  in  whole  or 
in  part.  Nor  should  the  share  of  the  publishers  be  for- 
gotten, whose  warm  interest  and  generous  co-operation 
have  made  work  with  them  a  pleasure.  If  the  book  suc- 
ceeds in  serving  the  cause  of  sound  historical  learning  in 
high-schools  and  academies,  their  share  in  making  this 
possible  is  no  small  one. 

G.  S.  G. 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO, 
May,  1904. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

The  usefulness  of  this  book  will  depend  largely  on  the 
teacher,  and  hence  one  or  two  suggestions  rising  out  of 
the  purpose  and  method  of  the  author  may  not  be  amiss. 

1.  The  grand  divisions  into  which  the  book  falls  are 
those  determined  by  the  course  of  historical  progress. 
Each  one  of  these  divisions  is  introduced  by  a  "  Prelim- 
inary Survey"  of  the  ground  to  be  covered  in  the  period. 
It  seems  theoretically  desirable  and  pedagogically  useful 
to  give  the  pupil  beforehand  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  chief 
stations  along  the  pathway  which  he  is  later  to  travel 
step  by  step.    But  it  is  suggested  that  the  teacher  take 
up  this  Survey  with  the  pupil,  read  and  expound  it  to  him, 
rather  than  assign  it  as  a  task  to  be  learned  without  the 
previous  preparation  that  explanation  by  the  teacher 
would  give. 

2.  The  "Helps"  which  follow  the  several  divisions  are, 
perhaps,  more  elaborate  than  is  usual  in  books  of  this 
kind,  and  therefore  may  need  some  explanation.     In  the 
material  that  follows  each  lesser  division  (e.g.,  on  pp. 
27-28)  the  design  is  to  afford  the  pupil  several  ways  of 
reviewing  the  text  of  that  division.     Thus  (i)  An  "  Outline 
for  Review,"  arranged  in  a  suggestive  and  natural  order, 
enables  him  to  run  over  in  mind  the  details  of  the  division 
in  its  historical  progress;  (2)  a  series  of  "Review  Topics" 
gives  opportunity  for  memory  work,  by  suggesting  a  fact, 
a  name,  a  salient  date,  for  testing  his  knowledge  in  par- 


x  Suggestions  to  Teacher? 

ticulars;  (3)  what  are  called  "Comparative  Studies"  are 
intended  to  test  recollection  of  previous  periods  as  well  as 
reasoning  powers  by  comparison  of  significant  points  in 
earlier  and  later  studies;  (4)  a  series  of  "Topics  for  Read- 
ing and  Oral  Report"  makes  it  possible  to  read  intelli- 
gently in  a  few  other  works  of  moderate  size  on  suggested 
topics  and,  if  desired,  to  report  upon  this  reading  informally 
in  class;  (5)  a  few  subjects  are  suggested  in  which  the 
illustrations  may  be  used  to  supplement  the  history,  or 
map  exercises  are  set. 

It  is,  of  course,  evident  that  the  purpose  of  these 
"Helps"  is  to  provide  something  usable  by  all  classes  of 
pupils  and  to  touch  on  more  than  one  side  of  the  pupil's 
preparation  of  his  task. 

At  the  end  of  the  grand  divisions  (e.g.,  after  Part  I), 
" Helps"  for  reviewing  the  entire  Part  are  suggested. 
These  consist  of  a  series  of  (i)  "Topics  for  Class  Dis- 
cussion," which  embrace  subjects  which  run  through  the 
entire  epoch  and  to  which  references  to  pertinent  sections 
are  given,  and  (2)  "  Subjects  for  Written  Papers,"  with  a 
somewhat  wide  selection  of  references  to  literature.  These 
can  be  assigned  early  in  the  study  of  the  epoch  or  required 
at  the  close  of  the  course. 

3.  Fuller  directions  and  suggestions  for  using  this  book, 
with  additional  material  for  the  use  of  teachers,  have  been 
prepared  by  Miss  Frances  Ada  Knox,  of  the  University 
of  Chicago,  in  collaboration  with  the  author,  and  may  be 
obtained  from  the  publishers. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

/NTRODUCTORY        i 

I.   THE  EASTERN  EMPIRES 

PRELIMINARY  SURVEY 5 

1.  THE  FIRST  KINGDOMS  IN  BABYLONIA  AND  EGYPT      .      .11 

2.  THE  EARLY  BABYLONIAN  EMPIRE 28 

3.  THE  EGYPTIAN  EMPIRE 33 

4.  THE  SYRIAN  EMPIRES 43 

5.  THE  WORLD-EMPIRE  OF  ASSYRIA 51 

6.  THE  MEDIAN  AND  KALDEAN  EMPIRES 58 

7.  THE  WORLD-EMPIRE  OF  PERSIA:  ITS  FOUNDING  AND  Ofc- 

GANIZATION 60 

II.   THE   GREEK   EMPIRES 

PRELIMINARY  SURVEY 70 

1.  THE   BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE   AND   ITS   EXPANSION  IN 

EAST  AND  WEST 76 

2.  THE  FIRST  ATTEMPTS  AT  EMPIRE:     ATHENIAN,  SPARTAN, 

THEBAN  AND  MACEDONIAN 118 

3.  THE  EMPIRES  OF  ALEXANDER  AND  His  SUCCESSORS  TO 

THE  APPEARANCE  OF  ROME  IN  THE  EAST    ....  208 

III.   THE   EMPIRE   OF   ROME 

PRELIMINARY  SURVEY 240 

1.  THE  MAKING  OF  ROME 250 

2.  ROME'S  WESTERN  EMPIRE 265 

Preliminary  Survey 265 

(1)  Rome's  Defence  against  Her  Neighbors  ....  268 

(2)  The  Union  of  Italy  under  Rome 279 

(3)  The  Struggle  with  Carthage  for  the  Western  Mediter- 

ranean       300 

xi 


xii  Table  of  Contents 

PAGE 

3.  ROME'S  EASTERN  EMPIRE 311 

4.  ROME'S  WORLD-EMPIRE 357 

Preliminary  Survey 357 

(1)  The  World-Empire  under  the  Principate  ....  359 

(2)  The  World-Empire  under  the  Despotism  ....  416 

(3)  The  Breaking  Up  of  the  World-Empire  and  the  End 

of  the  Ancient  Period         426 

BIBLIOGRAPHIES   FOR   STUDENTS 

1.  GENERAL  WORKS 4 

2.  THE  EASTERN  EMPIRES 10 

3.  GREECE 75 

4.  ROME — EARLIER  PERIOD 249 

5.  ROME — PRINCIPATE 359 

6.  ROME — CLOSING  PERIOD 427 

APPENDICES 

I.  BIBLIOGRAPHY  TOR  ADVANCED  STUDENTS  AND  TEACHERS  449 
II.  NOTES  ON  THE  ILLUSTRATIONS 455 

GENERAL  INDEX 465 


MAPS,    PLANS    AND    CHARTS 

FULL-PAGE   AND   DOUBLE-PAGE   MAPS 

PACK 

THE  ANCIENT  EAST facing      5 

EMPIRES  OF  THE  ANCIENT  EASTERN  WORLD     .      .  following    62 

ANCIENT  GREECE          following    70 

CENTRES  or  MYCENJEAN  CIVILIZATION       .      .      .      facing    77 
COLONIES  OF  PHCENICIA  AND  GREECE         .      .      .      facing    90 

LANDS  OF  THE  AEGEAN following  118 

ATHENS facing  133 

GREECE  AT  THE  TIME  OF  THE  PELOPONNESLAN  WAR    facing  162 

ALEXANDER'S  EMPIRE following  216 

KINGDOMS  OF  ALEXANDER'S  SUCCESSORS     .      .      .      facing  230 

ANCIENT  ITALY following  240 

ITALY  IN  218  B.C facing  304 

GAUL  AT  THE  TIME  OF  CAESAR facing  348 

THE  ROMAN  STATE  AT  SUCCESSIVE  PERIODS  OF  ITS  DEVEL- 
OPMENT TO  44  B.C following  356 

THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE  IN  THE  TIME  OF  AUGUSTUS    .  following  364 

THE  CITY  OF  ROME following  386 

THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD following  400 

THE  BARBARIAN  KINGDOMS facing  427 

EUROPE  ABOUT  A.D.  800 facing  441 

MAPS   AND   PLANS   IN  THE   TEXT 

THE  BATTLE  OF  SALAMIS 125 

THE  WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  HERODOTUS 142 

MIDDLE  GREECE 154 

PYLOS  AND  SPHACTERIA 164 

THE  HELLESPONT,  PROPONTIS  AND  BOSPORUS     .      .      .      .177 

THE  BATTLE  OF  LEUCTRA 188 

xiii 


xiv  Maps,  Plans  and  Charts 

MM 

THE  BATTLE  OF  Issus 211 

ALEXANDRIA  AT  THE  TIME  OF  CHRIST 213 

THE  WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  ERATOSTHENES,  200  B.C.        .      .  233 

THE  EARLIEST  PEOPLES  OF  ITALY 244 

EARLY  ROME 252 

THE  ENVIRONS  OF  ROME 270 

THE  PUNIC  WARS 302 

THE  BATTLE  OF  CANNJE 304 

CARTHAGE 317 

THE  BATTLE  OF  PHARSALUS 350 

THE  WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  PTOLEMY,  A.D.  150  ....  390 
CONSTANTINOPLE 421 


CHRONOLOGICAL   CHARTS 

1.  THE  ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  EMPIRES      ....   facing    67 

2.  GREEK  HISTORY,  500-331  B.C following  206 

3.  GREEK  HISTORY,  331-200  B.C following  238 

4.  ROMAN  HISTORY,  500-200  B.C following  246 

5.  ROMAN  HISTORY,  200-31  B.C following  266 

6.  ROMAN  HISTORY,  31  B.C.-A.D.  285  ....    facing  358 

7.  ROMAN  HISTORY,  A.D.  285-800 facing  417 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATE 

I.  A  CORNER  OF  THE  PARTHENON  AND  A  PORTION  OF 

ITS  FRIEZE-COLOR Frontispiece 

PAGE 

II.  TYPICAL  ORIENTAL  HEADS      ....   facing    n 

III.  PAINTING    FROM    THE    WALL   OF    AN    EGYPTIAN 

TOMB facing    22 

IV.  BABYLONIAN  AND  EGYPTIAN  TEMPLES  .      .  facing    38 
V.  TYPICAL  ASSYRIAN  SCENES       ....   facing    55 

VI.  RELIEFS   FROM   GOLD  CUPS  OF  THE  MYCENAEAN 

AGE facing    81 

VII.  THE  ACROPOLIS  OF  ATHENS  (restored)       .   facing  147 
VIII.  THE  HERMES  OF  PRAXITELES        .      .      .   facing  149 

IX.  THE  LAOCOON  GROUP facing  172 

X.  THE  ALEXANDER  MOSAIC.      Color       .      .   facing  212 

XI.  TYPICAL  GREEK  HEADS facing  218 

XII.  CLASSICAL  TEMPLES facing  226 

XIII.  TYPICAL  SCULPTURED  FIGURES:  KAFRE  AND  Posi- 

DIPPUS facing  234 

XIV.  TYPICAL  SCULPTURED  FIGURES:  ASHURNATSIRPAL 

AND  TRAJAN facing  253 

XV.  TYPICAL  COINS:  ORIENT  AND  GREECE)     . 
XVI.  TYPICAL  COINS:  ROME      .      .      .      J  A*"**  •* 
XVII.  THE    ROMAN    FORUM    AND    THE    SURROUNDING 

BUILDINGS  (restored) facing  315 

XVIII.  TYPICAL  ROMAN  HEADS facing  344 

XIX.  RELIEF  FROM  THE  ARCH  OF  TITUS      .     following  380 
XX.  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ART.    Color      .      .      following  394 
XXI.  A  ROOM  IN  THE  HOUSE  OF  THE  VETTH,  POMPEII, 

facing  405 

XXII.  A  RELIEF  FROM  THE  COLUMN  OF  TRAJAN  .  facing  414 
XXIII.  CHARACTERISTIC  ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  .  facing  422 
XXIV.  BYZANTINE  ART:  CHRIST  ENTHRONED.  Color,  facing  432 


A  HISTORY  OF  THE  ANCIENT 
WORLD 

INTRODUCTORY 

1.  We  are  to  study  the  history  of  the  Ancient  World.   To  History 
study  history  is  to  trace  out  the  growth  of  human  beings  Growth 
organized  into  a  society  with  government,  laws,  literature 

and  religion.  History  is  like  a  tree,  with  roots,  stem,  sap, 
bark,  branches  and  leaves,  all  joined  together,  all  having 
a  common  life,  all  growing  as  the  tree  grows.  With  the 
ancient  world  we  begin  at  the  roots  of  the  tree  of  human 
history,  of  which  the  modern  world  is  the  trunk  and  its 
various  peoples  the  branches. 

2.  The  value  of  studying  ancient  history  comes  from  Ancient 
the  fact  just  mentioned.     It  is  the  root  of  that  history  of  J*tory 
which  we  form  a  part.     If  the  peoples  of  old  had  not  starting 
learned  how  to  form  states  and  establish  laws  for  the  con- 
duct of  social  life,  we  should  not  enjoy  the  order  and  pros- 
perity of  to-day.     As  a  son  inherits  the  property  of  his 
father,  so  we  inherit  the  ideas  and  forms  of  government 

and  society  of  our  historic  ancestors.  We  have  made  many 
improvements  and  additions  to  what  they  gave  us,  but  we 
could  not  have  done  so  if  they  had  not  originally  made  us 
their  heirs.  Hence,  to  understand  our  times,  it  is  necessary 
to  know  the  history  of  the  past,  and  especially  that  earliest 


2  Introductory 

past  in  which  men  began  to  lay  those  foundations  on  which 
modern  life  is  built. 

A  Return  to  3.  Let  us  suppose  a  traveller  making  a  journey  from  our 
BeSnn^'i  own  country  back  through  the  centuries  to  the  beginning 
of  history.  He  sails  over  the  Atlantic  to  England,  thence 
crosses  to  the  continent  of  Europe;  he  passes  through 
Germany  and  France  on  his  way  southward  into  Italy, 
where  his  objective  point  is  the  city  of  Rome.  There  he 
delays  to  study  the  monuments  commemorating  the  con- 
quests, the  laws  and  the  rulers  of  the  wide  and  well-ordered 
world  that,  for  so  many  centuries,  centred  in  Rome. 
Then  he  takes  up  his  course  to  the  east  over  the  Mediter- 
ranean sea  to  Greece,  breaking  his  journey  for  a  season 
to  enjoy  the  air  of  freedom,  and  to  revel  in  the  art  and 
literature,  of  Athens.  Still  he  travels  eastward,  taking 
ship  for  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  and  thence  making  a 
longer  sea-voyage  southward  across  the  Mediterranean  to 
the  valley  of  the  Nile.  There  he  admires  the  marvellous 
achievements  of  the  Egyptians  at  Memphis  and  Thebes. 
But  he  has  yet  another  stage  of  travel.  Passing  northward 
along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  sea,  he  tarries  awhile  at 
Jerusalem,  where  the  world's  chief  religion,  Christianity, 
was  born,  pushes  on  to  Damascus,  Syria's  ancient  com- 
mercial centre,  and  then  strikes  eastward  to  the  broad 
river,  Euphrates.  Crossing  this,  he  moves  on  under  the 
shadow  of  the  northern  mountains  through  the  fertile  up- 
per Mesopotamian  valley  to  the  deep  and  rapid  Tigris 
river,  on  whose  banks  stands  Nineveh,  the  capital  of  the 
Assyrian  Empire.  Thence  by  raft  he  glides  down  the 
stream  until,  near  its  junction  with  the  Euphrates,  he 
disembarks  upon  the  rich  soil  of  Babylonia,  and  wonders 
at  the  strange,  yet  somehow  not  unfamiliar,  life  that 


The  Course  of  Ancient  History  3 

greets  him.  In  the  markets  and  temples  of  Babylon 
his  long  pilgrimage  is  ended.  He  stands  at  the  cradle 
of  human  civilization;  he  is  in  the  dawn  of  human 
history. 

4.  Of  this  long  line  of  countries  and  of  centuries,  those  The 
which  belong  to  the  Ancient  World  first  greet  us  on  com-  Andent°" 
ing  to  Rome.  As  we  enter  the  Church  of  St.  Peter,  we  be-  History, 
hold  the  scene  of  the  event  that  brought  Ancient  History 
to  an  end,  for  here  Charlemagne,  King  of  the  Franks,  was 
crowned  Roman  Emperor  on  Christmas  Day  in  the  year 
of  our  Lord  800.  Between  that  event  and  the  earliest 
organized  society  in  the  lower  valley  of  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris  in  the  fifth  millennium  before  Christ  (5000 
B.C.)  lies  Ancient  History — a  period,  if  measured  by  years, 
at  least  three-fourths  of  the  entire  length  of  the  history  of 
mankind.  From  the  valleys  of  the  Tigris- Euphrates  and 
the  Nile,  civilization  passed  through  the  regions  of  the 
eastern  Mediterranean  and  Asia  Minor  to  Greece;  Greece 
received  and  improved  upon  the  eastern  civilization  and 
taught  Rome  the  secrets  of  her  power  and  progress;  Rome, 
her  native  vigor  refined  and  guided  by  Greek  civilization, 
became  the  mistress  of  the  world,  the  source  of  order  and 
progress  to  a  wider  circle  of  peoples  gathered  under  her 
sway.  When,  her  task  accomplished,  Rome  handed  over 
the  world  to  Charlemagne,  who  represents  the  fresh  and 
vigorous  Teutonic  stock  of  western  Europe,  the  history 
of  the  Ancient  World  was  completed.  Thus  the  Eastern 
Nations,  Greece  and  Rome,  the  first  three  links  of  the 
chain  of  history  that  binds  the  world  together,  are  the  sub- 
ject of  our  study.  The  movement  of  history  was  steadily 
from  east  to  west;  the  world  grew  ever  larger;  yet  con- 
stantly the  widening  world  was  more  and  more  united  in 


4  Introductory 

the  possession  of  a  common  culture  and  at  last  became 
one  under  the  universal  government  of  Rome. 


GENERAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY* 

WEST.     Ancient  History.    Allyn  and  Bacon. 

WOLFSON.     Essentials  in  Ancient  History.     American  Book  Co. 

BOTSFORD.    Ancient  History  for  Beginners.    Macmillan  Co. 

Each  of  these  three  general  histories  has  its  special  excellencies  and 
defects.     They  will  be  constantly  referred  to  in  the  coming  pages. 

*  A  bibliography  for  advanced  students  and  teachers  will  be  found  in 
Appendix  I. 


I.     THE  EASTERN   EMPIRES 

TO  500  B.C. 

PRELIMINARY   SURVEY 

5.  The  earliest  seats  of  ancient  civilization  are  found  The  Field 
in  Egypt  and  Babylonia.  Egypt  lies  in  the  lower  valley  oriental 
of  the  river  Nile;  Babylonia  in  the  lowland  where  the  History, 
rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates  unite  to  flow  into  the  Persian 
gulf.  Both  these  river-systems  have  their  sources  in  high 
mountain  regions.  At  regular  periods  in  the  spring  of 
each  year,  their  waters  are  swollen  by  the  melting  snows, 
or  winter  rains.  These  floods  pour  over  the  plain  and 
carry  with  them  masses  of  earth  which  they  deposit  along 
the  banks  and  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers.  Thus  in  the 
course  of  time  they  have  piled  up  layers  of  soil  which, 
regularly  irrigated  by  the  overflowing  waters,  are  mar- 
vellously fertile.  Between  the  Nile  valley  and  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  basin  direct  communication  is  cut  off  by  the 
Arabian  desert;  the  upper  Euphrates,  however,  bending 
westward,  connects  the  Tigris- Euphrates  basin  with  the 
series  of  fertile  valleys  and  plateaus  made  by  the  moun- 
tain ranges  which  run  from  north  to  south,  parallel  with 
the  eastern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean.  Thus  this  mid 
die  region,  known  in  general  as  Syria,  is  the  connecting 
link  between  the  two  river-systems,  since  its  southern 
boundary  is  separated  from  the  Nile  valley  only  by  a  com- 
paratively narrow  stretch  of  sandy  desert. 

5 


6  The  Eastern  Empires 

its  6.  Looking  at  the  whole  region  thus  bound  together,  we 

Sty?*1  observe  that  it  has  somewhat  the  character  of  a  crescent. 
The  two  extremities  are  the  lands  at  the  mouths  of  the  two 
river-systems — Egypt  and  Babylonia.  The  upper  central 
portion  is  called  Mesopotamia.  The  outer  border  consists 
of  mountain  ranges  which  pass  from  the  Persian  gulf 
northward  and  westward  until  they  touch  the  northeast 
corner  of  the  Mediterranean,  from  which  point  the  boun- 
dary is  continued  by  the  sea  itself.  The  inner  side  is  made 
by  the  desert  of  Arabia.  The  crescent-shaped  stretch  of 
country  thus  formed  is  the  field  of  the  history  of  the  ancient 
Eastern  World.  It  consisted  of  two  primitive  centres  of 
historic  life  connected  by  a  strip  of  habitable  land  of  vary- 
ing width. 

its  7-  The  inhabitants  of  this  region  were  peoples  who  spoke 

dialects  of  a  common  language.  Most  of  them  are  named 
in  the  book  of  Genesis  as  descended  from  Shem  (Sem), 
the  son  of  Noah.  The  accepted  name  for  them,  there- 
fore, is  the  "Semitic"  peoples,  and  the  languages  they 
spoke  are  called  the  "Semitic"  languages. 

Their  8.  The  original  home  of  the  primitive  Semites  was 

tion"  V  probably  northern  Arabia.  From  here  when  the  scanty 
sustenance  afforded  by  the  desert  could  not  supply  their 
needs,  they  poured  out  on  every  side  into  the  fertile  valleys 
that  bordered  upon  their  home.  Thus,  from  this  natural 
centre  they  went  forth  into  the  lower  Tigris- Euphrates 
valley  to  form  the  civilization  which  we  know  as  the  Baby- 
lonian; farther  to  the  north,  on  the  upper  Tigris,  they 
became  the  Assyrians;  roaming  back  and  forth  in  the 
wide  regions  between  the  upper  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
they  were  known  as  the  Arameans;  farther  to  the  west, 
in  the  region  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  they  formed 


Peoples  of  the  Ancient  East  7 

communities  known  as  the  Canaanites,  the  Phoenicians 
and  the  Hebrews.  The  Hebrews  further  divide  into  the 
Moabites,  Ammonites,  Edomites  and  Israelites.  Pushing 
on  to  the  south  and  southwest,  some  of  them  made  their 
homes  on  the  fertile  coasts  of  southern  Arabia.  Others 
passed  over  into  the  Nile  valley  and  made  up  the  most 
important  element  of  the  peoples  who  settled  in  Egypt. 
To  the  Semites  are  due  the  development  and  extension 
of  political  and  social  institutions  throughout  this  entire 
region. 

9.  Occupying  the  upper  valleys  and  plateaus  of  the  The 
northern  mountain  ranges  that  border  the  crescent  of  this  fngrround 
Semitic  world  was  a  variety  of  tribes  and  peoples  without  Peoples, 
unity  of  language  or  civilization.  From  time  to  time  they 
fell  upon  the  Semites  of  the  river-valleys  and  established 
their  authority  more  or  less  permanently  and  extensively 
over  them.  Such  were  the  Elamites  occupying  the  high 
table-lands  to  the  east  of  Babylonia,  and  the  Khati  or  Hit- 
tites,  whose  original  home  was  in  the  mountains  to  the 
northwest  of  the  upper  waters  of  the  Euphrates.  From 
the  same  mountain  regions  came,  toward  the  close  of  the 
history  of  the  Ancient  East,  the  Medo-Persians,  a  branch 
of  the  family  to  which  the  historical  peoples  of  western 
Europe  and  North  America  belong — the  Indo-European 
or  Indo-Germanic  race.*  They  had  their  home  in  the 
lofty  plateaus  far  to  the  east  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley. 
Thence  by  slow  degrees  they  pushed  westward  until,  de- 


*  This  race-family,  clearly  distinguished  from  the  Semitic  (§  7)  by 
language,  comprised  peoples  whose  homes  were  as  far  distant  from  one 
another  as  India  and  England.  Its  chief  branches  were  the  people  of 
India,  the  Persians,  the  Greeks,  the  Romans,  the  Teutons,  the  Kelts, 
and  the  Slavs. 


8  The  Eastern  Empires 

scending   upon   the   plains,  they  absorbed   the   ancient 

Semitic  civilization  and  established  the  Persian  Empire, 
course  of         io.  Before  entering  upon  the  history  of  these  peoples 
Prog°reial     in  detail  'li  wil1  be  Prontable  to  take  a  general  survey  of 

the  field  to  be  studied  and  to  mark  out  its  grand  divisions 

and  epochs.* 

1.  Begin-         History  begins  at  the  extremes  of  the  field  in  the  two 

primitive  centres  of  civilization,  Babylonia  and  Egypt. 
For  long  periods  (about  5000-2500  B.C.)  each  grows  by 
itself,  each  produces  a  unique  civilization  having  its  own 
peculiarities  of  language,  race,  political  organization, 
social  life  and  religion. 

2.  Baby-         In  course  of  time  each,  driven  by  the  impulse  of  ex- 
EgypJian*1    pansion,  pushes  out  into  the  region  lying  between  them — 
Empires.      fae  ian(j  of  Syria  (2500-1 1 oo  B.C.).     Babylonia  is  first  in 

the  field,  and  makes  her  influence  felt  for  centuries  in  Syria 
(down  to  1600  B.C.);  but,  weakened  by  the  rise  of  the 
Assyrian  kings  in  the  north  and  by  foreign  wars  and  the 
invasion  of  strangers,  her  power  declines.  The  way  is 
open  for  Egypt  to  occupy  the  field.  She  conquers  Syria, 
plants  her  garrisons  throughout  its  borders  and  establishes 
her  civilization  in  its  cities  (1600-1100  B.C.). 

3.  Em-  But  Egypt,  also,  in  course  of  time  declines  in  power. 
Syria          Migrations  of  strange  peoples  sweep  over  these  Syrian 

plains.  The  Hittite  (Khati)  people  from  the  north  press 
forward  and  drive  the  armies  of  Egypt  back,  only  to  be 
themselves  followed  by  other  northern  tribes.  For  two 
centuries  Syria  is  free  from  the  authority  of  either  of  the 

*  This  section  may  most  profitably  be  read  together  by  teacher  and 
pupil,  the  teacher  emphasizing  and  expounding  the  great  epochs  of  the 
history,  which  are  here  set  forth  in  the  barest  outline,  preparatory  to 
their  intensive  study. 


Epochs  of  Oriental  History  9 

two  great  oriental  powers  (1100-900  B.C.).  It  is  now 
the  opportunity  of  native  princes  and  peoples  of  Palestine 
and  Syria  to  assert  themselves.  On  the  Mediterranean 
coast  appear  the  city-states  of  the  Philistines  in  the  south, 
and  in  the  north  the  kingdom  of  Tyre,  which  gathers  under 
its  sway  all  Phoenicia,  the  centre  of  the  commerce  of  the 
ancient  world.  In  the  southeast  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
under  David  and  Solomon  unites  the  tribes  of  the  southern 
plateau  (Palestine)  under  a  single  sceptre. 

But  this  period  of  Syrian  independence  does  not  last.  ?•  Assyr- 
The  kingdom  of  Assyria  in  the  far  east  on  the  upper  Tigris  Empire, 
rises  into  greater  power,  and  moves  out  to  seize  the  western 
lands.     For  three  centuries  (900-600  B.C.)  its  armies  push 
up  and  down,  north,  south  and  west,  and  it  becomes  the 
first  great  World- Empire. 

But,  weakened  by  internal  decay  and  assailed  by  rising 
enemies,  it,  too,  falls.     Its  Empire  is  divided  between  its 
conquerors,  the  Medes  on  the  east  and  the  Babylonians  5-  Kew 
(or  Kaldeans)  on  the  south.     But  these  two  powers  con-  and 
tend  with  each  other  for  final  supremacy  (600-538  B.C.). 
New  Babylonia  (or  Kaldea)  is  no  match  for  the  vigorous 
and  warlike  Medes,  united  with  the  Persians,  led  by  Cyrus 
the  Great. 

Babylon,  the  capital  of  Kaldea,  falls  before  the  Persian 
power.  All  its  possessions  pass  into  the  hands  of  Cyrus. 
He  founds  the  second  great  World-Empire,  Persia  (538- 
325  B.C.).  This  Empire,  expanding  on  all  sides,  comes 
face  to  face  with  the  Greek  cities  of  Europe.  In  its  strug- 
gle with  them  a  new  motive  and  new  peoples  enter  into 
the  sphere  of  history;  the  career  of  the  Ancient  East  is 
finished. 


10  The  Eastern  Empires 

Grand  II.  The  grand  divisions  of  this  long  development  are, 

Divisions,     therefore,  the  following: 

1.  The  First  Kingdoms  in  Babylonia  and  Egypt 

(tO  2500  B.C.). 

2.  The  Babylonian  and  Egyptian  Empires  (2500- 

noo  B.C.). 

3.  The  Empires  of  Syria  (1100-900  B.C.). 

4.  The  World-Empire  of  Assyria  (900-600  B.C.). 

5.  The  New  Babylonian  (Kaldean)  and  Median 

Empires  (600-538  B.C.). 

6.  The  World-Empire  of  Persia  (538-325  B.C.). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF  ORIENTAL  HISTORY* 

SAYCE.  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East.  Scribners.  A  collection  of  de- 
tached histories  of  the  oriental  peoples  not  altogether  up  to  date  and 
with  no  sense  of  the  unity  of  ancient  oriental  history. 

GOODSPEED.  History  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians.  Scribners. 
The  only  one-volume  history  in  moderate  compass. 

MURISON.  i.  Babylonia  and  Assyria.  2.  History  of  Egypt.  Both  im- 
ported by  Scribners.  Excellent  little  sketches  for  school  use. 

RAGOZIN.  i.  The  Story  of  Chaldea.  2.  The  Story. oj  Assyria.  3.  The 
Story  oj  Media,  Babylon  and  Persia.  Putnams.  Well -written,  full, 
not  abreast  of  the  most  recent  discoveries,  but  modern  enough  to 
be  very  useful. 

SAYCE.  Babylonians  and  Assyrians:  Life  and  Customs.  Scribners. 
Deals  with  the  life  of  these  peoples  fully  and  interestingly. 

TARBELL.  A  History  of  Greek  Art.  Chautauqua  Press.  Has  an 
introductory  chapter  on  oriental  art. 

MASPZRO.  Ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria.  Chapman  and  Hall.  Sketches 
of  the  life  of  these  peoples.  Pleasantly  written  and  instructive. 

WENDEL.  History  of  Egypt.  History  Primer  Series.  American  Book 
Co.  The  best  little  book  on  Egyptian  history. 

KENT.  History  of  the  Hebrew  People.  Scribners,  2  vols.  An  attrac- 
tively written  account  on  the  basis  of  modern  biblical  learning. 

*  An  additional  bibliography  for  advanced  students  and  teachers  will 
be  found  in  Appendix  I. 


PLATE  II 


Hammurabi 


Rameses  II 


Esarhaddon 


A  Syrian 


A  Philistine 


TYPICAL    ORIENTAL   HEADS 


1.— THE   FIRST    KINGDOMS    IN    BABYLONIA 
AND    EGYPT 

ABOUT  5000-2500  B.C. 

12.  The  darkness  that  covers  the  beginnings  of  man's  Beginnings 
life  on  the  earth  lifts  from  the  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates  rivers  about  five  thousand  years  before  the  birth 

of  Christ.  More  than  a  thousand  years  later  we  catch  our 
first  glimpse  of  history  in  the  Nile  valley.  An  unexpected 
sight  greets  us  in  the  dawning  light.  Men  are  not  savages 
wandering  about  and  plundering,  but  have  fixed  homes 
and  live  in  cities  ruled  over  by  kings  who  make  laws,  lead 
armies  and  worship  the  divine  powers  in  splendid  temples. 

13.  In  Babylonia  the  chief  cities  were  Shirpurla,  Ur,*  Movement 
Nippur,  Agade  and  Babylon.    Nippur  was  the  leading 
religious  centre  where  stood  a  famous  temple  to  the  god 

Bel.  The  others  were  the  seats  of  kingdoms,  whose  kings 
fought  with  one  another  for  supremacy  over  the  whole 
region.  For  thousands  of  years  this  struggle  went  on,  no 
city  being  able  permanently  to  hold  all  power.  One  of 
the  greatest  of  these  early  rulers  was  Sargon,  king  of 
Agade  (about  3800  B.C.).  Some  memorials  of  his  reign 
tell  us  of  his  wide  power. 

An  interesting  account  of  Sargon's  early  life  has  come  down  to  us   Sargon's 
in  his  own  words:  "Sargon,  the  powerful  king,  am  I.     My  mother   Aut°b'- 
was  of  low  degree,  my  father  I  did  not  know.     The  brother  of  my 
father  dwelt  in  the  mountain.    My  city  was  Azupirani,  situated  on  the 
bank  of  the  Euphrates.     (My)  humble  mother  in  secret  brought  me 

*  The  M  in  all  these  words  is  pronounced  like  oo, 
11 


12 


First  Oriental  Kingdoms 


The  King- 
dom of 
Babylon. 


The 

Egyptii 

Kingdc 


The 

Fourth 

Dynasty 


forth.  She  placed  me  in  a  basket-boat  of  rushes,  with  pitch  she  closed 
my  door.  She  gave  me  over  to  the  river,  which  did  not  (rise)  over 
me.  The  river  bore  me  along;  to  Akki,  the  irrigator,  it  carried  me. 
Akki,  the  irrigator,  brought  me  to  land.  Akki,  the  irrigator,  reared 
me  as  his  own  son.  Akki,  the  irrigator,  appointed  me  his  gardener. 
While  I  was  gardener,  the  goddess  Ishtar  looked  on  me  with  love 
(and)  .  .  .  four  years  I  ruled  the  kingdom." 

14.  Finally  from  the  eastern  mountains  the   Elamites 
(§  9)  came  down  and  took  possession  of  the  southern  cities; 
about  the  same  time  some  Arabian  kings  seized  the  north- 
ern city  of  Babylon.   The  two  invaders  fought  each  other, 
and  the  kings  of  Babylon  drove  out  the  Elamites  and  got 
possession  of  the  whole  country.    Thus  a  strong  and  per- 
manent state  was  founded  with  its  capital  at  Babylon.    On 
this  account  the  lower  valley  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris 
is  called  Babylonia. 

15.  Not  later  than  3500  B.C.  the  people  of  the  Nile 
valley  were  organized  into  one  state  with  its  capital  at 
Memphis,  and  were  ruled  over  by  great  kings  whose  of- 
ficial title  was  the  "Pharaoh."*    In   this   early  period 
the  most  important  dynasty  was  the  fourth  (2700  B.C.). 
Its  kings  left  their  inscriptions  on  the  cliffs  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Sinai,  east  of  Egypt.    There  one  of  them  is  pictured 
in  the  act  of  striking  down  an  enemy  with  his  mace.    An- 
other remarkable  memorial  of  them  is  the  mighty  Pyra- 
mids, the  wonder  and  admiration  of  travellers  in  all  ages. 
In  the  time  of  the  sixth  dynasty,  commerce  with  the  rich 
lands  of  central  Africa  was  flourishing.     Sea-voyages,  the 
first  that  history  records,  were  made  upon  the  Red  sea. 

*  An  Egyptian  historian  named  Manetho,  writing  in  Greek,  has  left 
a  list  of  the  Pharaohs  organized  in  thirty-one  successive  groups  called 
by  him  "dynasties" — a  most  convenient  arrangement  followed  by  all 
later  historians. 


Early  Egyptian  Rulers  13 

Yet  the  crowning  achievement  of  these  kings  was  their 
successful  rule  of  the  state  with  its  loyal  and  devoted  offi- 
cials and  its  contented  and  prosperous  people.     From  centralized 
all  parts  of  the  realm  nobles  came  to  live  in  Memphis,  the  meat™" 
king's  seat,  and  to  serve  him.     When  they  died,  they 
desired  above  all  else  to  be  buried  near  his  tomb. 

16.  Egypt  was  also  very  prosperous  under  the  twelfth  The 
dynasty  (2000-1800  B.C.).     A  thousand  years  had  passed  J^asfy 
and  many  changes  had  taken  place.     Princes  of  Thebes 

were  on  the  throne,  and  the  capital  of  the  state  was  removed 
farther  to  the  south.  The  nobles  no  longer  flocked  to  the 
court,  but  preferred  to  dwell  on  their  own  domains.  They 
recognized  the  Pharaoh's  authority  and  did  his  bidding, 
but  lived  and  died  and  were  buried  at  home.  The  fol- 
lowing utterance  of  one  of  them  is  an  evidence  of  their 
authority  as  well  as  of  the  character  of  their  rule: 

"No  daughter  of  a  citizen  have  I  injured,  no  widow  have  I  mo-  A 
lested,  no  laborer  have  I  arrested,  no  shepherd  have  I  banished,    Prince's 
no  superintendent  of  workmen  was  there  whose  laborers  have  I 
taken  away  from  their  work.     In  my  time  there  were  no  poor,  and 
none  were  hungry  in  my  day.    When  the  years  of  famine  came  I 
ploughed  all  the  fields  of  the  nome*  from  the  southern  to  the  north- 
ern boundary;  I  kept  the  inhabitants  alive  and  gave  them  food,  so 
that  not  one  was  hungry.    I  gave  to  the  widow  even  as  to  her  who 
had  a  husband,  and  I  never  preferred  the  great  to  the  small." 

17.  Such  relations  of  king  and  nobles  we  call  feudal,  and  Feudalism 
the  twelfth  dynasty  is  the  first  example  of  feudal  govern-  m  Egypt 
ment  in  history.     Rulers  in  such  circumstances  have  to  be 

able  and  active  to  keep  the  nobles  obedient.  The  Pharaohs 
of  this  dynasty  were  equal  to  the  task.  They  extended  the 

*The  "nome"  is  one  of  the  forty  or  more  districts  into  which  Egypt 
was  divided  from  the  earliest  times. 


14  First  Oriental  Kingdoms 

state  up  the  Nile  by  the  conquest  of  Nubia,  the  quartz  mines 
of  which  yielded  much  gold.  A  series  of  successful  engi- 
neering works  on  the  lower  Nile,  by  which  a  marshy  district 
in  the  west,  now  called  the  Faiyum,  was  drained,  added 
a  wide  and  fertile  tract  to  the  kingdom.  The  Pharaohs 
of  this  dynasty  adorned  it  with  palaces  and  temples  and 
lived  in  it  or  on  its  border.  One  of  these  structures  was 
so  elaborate  that  it  was  called  by  Herodotus,  the  Greek 
historian  and  traveller,  a  "labyrinth,"  and  in  his  judgment 
it  surpassed  the  Pyramids. 

social  18.  In  that  far-off  period  when  the  primitive  inhabitants 

tfe'J11  settled  in  the  Tigris- Euphrates  and  Nile  basins,  the  first 
Ear»y  and  easiest  things  they  found  to  do  were  the  raising  of 
cattle  and  the  growing  of  grain.  The  wonderfully  rich 
and  well- watered  soil  produced  for  man  and  beast  all  kinds 
of  plants  for  food.  The  cattle  could  be  pastured  in  the 
luxuriant  marshes  by  the  river-banks.  Seed  sown  in  moist 
spots  produced  wonderful  harvests,  sometimes  two  hun- 
dred-fold and  more.  Soon  a  system  of  canals,  dykes  and 
Agrkuit-  reservoirs  was  created  to  distribute  the  inundating  waters. 
^y  tn*s  means  larger  tracts  of  land  were  obtained  for  culti- 
vation,  until  the  entire  valley  was  one  vast  garden.  The 
majority  of  the  people  were  farmers;  the  chief  products 
of  the  lands  were  cattle  and  grain.  The  regular  yearly 
inundations  of  the  rivers  kept  the  land  fertile,  and  the 
bountiful  soil  continued  from  generation  to  generation  to 
pour  its  wealth  into  the  arms  of  the  cultivators.  Its 
abundant  products  not  merely  supplied  their  needs,  but 
furnished  a  surplus  which  they  could  store  away  or  sell  to 
other  peoples  less  favored.  It  was  this  surplus  that  made 
the  nations  in  these  river- valleys  rich  and  gave  them  their 
commanding  position  in  the  ancient  world. 


Occupations  15 

19.  These  lands  were  also  the  earliest  seats  of  industry,  industry. 
The  records  show  that  already  there  were  carpenters, 
blacksmiths,    weavers,    goldsmiths,   silversmiths,   leather 
workers,  potters,  dyers,  masons,  miners,  vintners,  jewellers, 

and  brickmakers.  Each  trade  appears  to  have  been  organ- 
ized as  a  guild  or  union  with  a  chief  officer.  Egypt  was 
specially  famous  for  its  wonderfully  fine  white  linen; 
Babylonia  for  its  woollens  woven  into  cloths  and  rugs  of 
various  colors.  Papyrus,*  a  tall  reed  growing  in  profusion 
in  the  Nile,  was  used  by  the  Egyptians  to  make  mats,  rope, 
sandals,  boats  and  writing  material.  Long  strips  of  it  were 
laid  crosswise,  pressed  together  and  the  surfaces  polished 
off  to  make  a  rude  kind  of  paper.  The  most  important 
industry  of  the  Babylonians  was  brickmaking.  Stone 
was  hard  to  get  and  clay  was  abundant.  Hence  all  Baby- 
lonian buildings  were  of  brick.  Clay  was  the  chief  writ- 
ing material  of  Babylonia.  It  was  moulded,  when  soft, 
into  cakes;  into  these  the  characters  were  pressed  with  a 
tool,  and  then  the  cakes  were  dried  in  the  sun  or  in  a  kiln. 
One  of  their  months,  corresponding  to  our  June,  had  a 
name  which  meant  "the  month  of  bricks,"  because  it  was 
the  best  time  of  the  year  for  brickmaking. 

20.  Trading  was  another  activity  of  these  peoples.    The  commerce 
Egyptians  traded  chiefly  among  their  own  people  up  and  and  Tradc> 
down  the  Nile.     Yet  sea- voyages  also  were  undertaken 

from  an  early  period.  They  obtained  ivory,  incense  and 
spices,  ostrich  feathers  and  panther  skins  from  the  far 
south.  They  delighted  also  in  strange  animals,  and  made 
a  specialty  of  importing  apes  and  monkeys.  But  it  was 
the  Babylonians  who  were  the  chief  traders.  They  ex- 
tended their  commercial  operations  throughout  the  ancient 

*  From  this  word  our  ''paper"  is  derived. 


16  First  Oriental  Kingdoms 

eastern  world.  Having  no  stone  and  little  wood  in  theh 
own  land  they  imported  them.  Cedar  was  brought  from 
the  Mediterranean  coast,  teak  from  India;  stone  came 
from  the  eastern  mountains  and  even  from  western  Arabia. 
They  got  gold  and  silver  from  the  east  in  exchange  for 
their  grain  and  cloth.  Their  merchants  ventured  into  the 
borders  of  distant  countries  with  their  wares,  and  carried 
thither  knowledge  of  the  Babylonian  civilization, 
organiza-  21.  Men  engaged  in  so  many  varied  pursuits  would 
g°cn.e°y  very  early  be  organized  into  communities.  We  have 
already  said  that  our  first  glimpse  of  these  peoples  finds 
them  living  in  city-states.  The  head  of  the  state  was  the 
The  King.  king.  He  seems  to  have  been  first  a  priest,  occupied  with 
religious  duties,  and  to  have  risen  from  the  priesthood  to 
the  kingship.  He  was  closest  to  the  gods,  and  in  Egypt 
was  regarded  as  divine  and  called  "  the  good  god."  Hence 
his  power  was  supreme  and  absolute;  he  had  "divine 
right."  Obedience  to  him  was  the  first  duty  of  his  sub- 
jects. But  he  must  also  be  the  benefactor  of  his  people. 
He  was  the  one  who  hunted  and  killed  the  wild  animals 
that  preyed  upon  the  land ;  he  led  his  people  in  war  against 
their  enemies.  He  was  the  source  of  law  and  the  fountain 
of  justice.  Any  subject  could  appeal  to  him  for  deliver- 
ance. Next,  but  far  below  him,  came  the  nobility.  The 
The  greatest  noble  in  Egypt  must  fall  on  his  face  and  "snuff 

Nobmty.  ^  groun(j"  before  the  king;  the  highest  honor  was  to  be 
called  the  king's  "friend."  The  land  had  been  divided 
among  the  nobles  by  the  king,  the  sole  owner;  they  held  it 
at  his  will  and  paid  him  tribute  and  military  service  in 
return.  They  were  his  counsellors  and  assistants  in  gov- 
ernment, the  governors,  the  judges  and  the  generals  of  the 
army.  Often  they  lived  on  their  own  estates  in  fine 


Classes  of  People  17 

palaces  surrounded  by  gardens;  they  ruled  over  their  de- 
pendants as  the  king  over  the  state.  There  was  always 
danger  that  some  one  among  them  would  become  strong 
enough  to  aspire  to  the  throne  and  rebel  against  his  lord. 
The  kingship  was  too  glittering  a  prize  not  to  attract  an 
ambitious  noble.  Hence  the  king  had  to  be  strong  and 
watchful. 

22.  The  common  people  played  no  part  in  public  life,  The  People 
and  it  is  hard  to  discover  and  to  describe  their  place  in 

this  ancient  world.  Probably  very  few  of  them  owned  land. 
That  belonged  to  the  king  and  nobles,  who  rented  it  out  to 
tenant  farmers.  The  latter  cultivated  the  land  by  means 
of  free  laborers  or  slaves,  and  usually  paid  one- third  of  the 
yearly  crop  as  rent  to  the  proprietor.  Slaves  were  not  slaves, 
very  numerous  in  this  early  period  and  were  well  treated. 
In  Babylonia  most  slaves  were  the  property  of  the  temples 
and  were  hired  out  by  the  priests  to  the  farmers,  who 
had  to  care  for  them  if  sick  or  injured;  the  free  hired 
laborers  had  to  look  out  for  themselves. 

23.  The  artisans  and  tradesmen  were  not  very  highly  Merchants 
regarded  by  tne  upper  classes,  but  their  growing  wealth 

gave  them  increasing  importance  in  the  cities  where  they 
naturally  gathered.  Babylonian  merchants  began  early 
to  form  an  important  class.  Some  trading  families  carried 
on  mercantile  operations  from  generation  to  generation, 
amassed  riches,  and  engaged  in  banking.  At  first  all  trade  Means  of 
was  in  natural  products ;  cattle  were  exchanged  for  wheat  Exchangi 
or  dates.  But  standards  of  value  began  to  be  set  up  by 
the  use  of  the  precious  metals.  They  were  fashioned  in 
bars  or  rings  and  went  by  weight.  In  Babylonia  the  stand- 
ard was  the  shekel  of  half  an  ounce  avoirdupois ;  sixty  of 
these  made  a  mina,  and  sixty  minas  a  talent.  In  Egypt 


18  First  Oriental  Kingdoms 

the  deben,  weighing  three  and  a  quarter  ounces,  was  the 
standard.  In  those  days  silver  was  more  precious  than  gold, 
and  copper  was  the  commonest  metal.  Iron  was  rarer.  It 
was  possible  to  estimate  the  value  of  natural  products  in 
these  standards,  and  thus  mercantile  operations  on  a  much 
greater  scale  could  be  engaged  in.  Soon  the  Babylonian 
merchants  began  to  make  loans,  usually  at  a  high  rate  of 
interest.  Their  security  was  often  the  person  or  family 
of  the  borrower,  who  were  ruthlessly  seized  and  sold  as 
slaves  if  payment  was  not  made.  Thus  the  merchant 
came  to  be  more  and  more  a  power  in  the  ancient  world. 
Supremacy  24.  One  of  the  most  wonderful  things  about  this  early 
of  Law'  world  is  that  all  these  various  activities  of  ancient  life  were 
firmly  established  on  a  basis  of  law.  The  chief  reason 
for  the  organization  and  continuance  of  the  state  was  that 
it  secured  justice  for  its  members.  Not  violence  but  order 
was  the  rule.  The  symbol  of  rank  was  the  staff,  not  the 
sword.  The  highest  official  in  Egypt  under  the  Pharaoh 
was  the  Chief  Justice.  The  Babylonians  were  particu- 
larly given  to  legal  forms.  When  one  sold  his  grain,  or 
hired  a  laborer,  or  made  a  will,  or  married  a  wife,  or  adopted 
a  son,  he  went  before  the  judge,  and  a  document  recording 
the  transaction  was  written  out  and  signed  by  the  con- 
tracting parties  in  his  presence.  The  document  was  then 
filed  away  in  the  public  archives.  In  the  case  of  a  dispute 
arbitrators  were  employed  or  the  matter  was  brought 
before  the  court.  The  opposing  parties  were  sworn,  and 
after  the  case  was  heard,  a  written  verdict  was  rendered 
and  accepted  by  the  disputants,  or  an  appeal  was  made 
to  a  higher  tribunal.  Thousands  of  these  legal  documents, 
decisions,  bills,  drafts,  sales,  orders,  wills,  etc.,  have  been 
preserved  to  the  present  day. 


The  Ancient  Family  19 

25.  The  family  was  already  a  well-recognized  institu-  The 
lion.     The  father  was  its  acknowledged  head,  but  the  Family 
mother  was  highly  honored.     No  family  was  regarded  as 
complete  without  children.     In  Babylonia  it  was  common 

to  adopt  sons  by  process  of  law.  Respect  and  love  for 
parents  was  taught  and  practised.  "Thou  shalt  never 
forget  what  thy  mother  has  done  for  thee,"  says  Ani  the 
sage  of  Egypt,  and  another  declares, "  I  have  caused  the 
name  of  my  father  to  increase."  Giving  in  marriage  was 
the  father's  privilege  and  was  arranged  on  a  money  basis. 
The  wooer  paid  for  his  bride  according  to  his  wealth. 
Usually  the  marriage  ceremony  was  both  civil  and  relig- 
ious. The  wife  brought  a  marriage  portion  to  her  hus- 
band, which  he  had  to  return  if  he  divorced  her.  A  man 
might  buy  more  than  one  wife,  but  this  was  a  luxury  re- 
served for  the  rich  and  was  of  doubtful  advantage  to  the 
peace  of  the  home  life.  In  the  king's  "harem"  were 
gathered  as  many  princesses  as  there  were  political  alli- 
ances with  neighboring  rulers  or  nobles.  The  sense  of 
family  unity  seems  to  have  been  stronger  in  Babylonia 
than  in  Egypt.  The  Babylonian  father  had  the  power 
of  life  and  death  over  wife  and  children;  the  children 
called  themselves  after  the  names  of  their  ancestors.  In 
Egypt  names  were  individual,  containing  no  reference  to 
family  relations,  nor  do  funeral  epitaphs  usually  glorify 
the  ancestors  of  the  dead. 

26.  Both  Babylonians  and  Egyptians  had  already  in-  writing 
vented  systems  of  writing.     These  systems  sprang  out  of 

the  attempt  to  represent  objects  and  ideas  by  pictures — a 
circle  standing  for  "sun,  "or  a  winged  creature  for  "flying," 
etc.  Two  changes  took  place  in  course  of  time.  The 
pictures  began  to  have  various  meanings  and  they  came 


20  First  Oriental  Kingdoms 

to  lose  their  original  form  as  pictures.  So  in  Babylonia 
we  have  words  represented  by  a  series  of  lines  thickened 
into  a  wedge  at  the  end.  Hence  these  signs  are  called, 
from  the  Latin  word  cuneus,  "  a  wedge,"  cuneiform.  The 
Egyptians  regarded  their  picture-signs  as  "divine"  and 
"holy";  hence  they  are  called  hieroglyphics  from  the 
Greek  word  hieros,  "holy."  All  these  systems  of  writing, 
which  seem  to  us  so  cumbrous  and  difficult,  are  neverthe- 
less the  foundation  of  our  own  alphabet,  and  in  their  day 
were  a  wonderful  achievement  which  contributed  im- 
mensely to  human  progress. 

The  scribe.  2J.  To  master  these  methods  of  writing  required  special 
study,  to  which  only  a  few  could  give  themselves.  These 
began  as  boys  under  the  teacher,  usually  in  the  temple 
school,  and  graduated  as  scribes.  To  be  a  scribe  was  to 
enjoy  an  honorable  and  useful  career  in  government 
employ,  with  the  prospect  of  riches  and  advancement. 
To  every  king,  prince,  noble,  governor  or  judge  a  scribe 
was  indispensable  for  preparing  his  despatches  or  de- 
cisions ;  indeed,  everybody  who  wished  to  write  a  letter  or 
to  read  one  was  dependent  on  the  scribe. 

Literature.  28.  Songs,  stories  and  records  had  also  been  written. 
In  other  words,  these  peoples  had  a  literature.  It  started 
with  the  priests,  who  were  the  learned  men  of  the  time; 

its  therefore  it  was  chiefly  made  up  of  religious  books,  such 

Eleven™  as  Prayers  and  hymns  for  public  worship.  But  there  were 
also  tales  in  prose  and  verse  about  divine  heroes  and  their 
wonderful  adventures.  The  most  striking  of  these  is  the 
Babylonian  Epic  of  the  Hero  Gilgamesh,  who  seeks  the 
fountain  of  immortality.  In  the  eleventh  book  of  this 
poem  is  the  account  of  the  deluge  and  the  building  of  the 
ship  in  which  one  family  of  all  human  kind  is  saved — 


Literature  and  the  Art  of  Living        21 

wonderfully  like  the  Bible  story  in  Genesis.  The  Egyp- 
tians had  a  fondness  for  stories  of  magic  and  fairy  tales. 
Their  poetry  also  was  sometimes  touching  and  thoughtful. 

Mind  thee  of  the  day  when  thou  too  shalt  start  for  the  land 

To  which  one  goeth  never  to  return. 

Good  for  thee  then  will  have  been  an  honorable  life; 

Therefore  be  just  and  hate  transgressions 

For  he  who  loveth  justice  will  be  blessed; 

Then  give  bread  to  him  who  has  no  field 

And  create  for  thyself  a  good  name  for  posterity  forever. 

29.  A  sense  for  literature  and  history  is  shown  in  the  Historical 
desire  of  kings  and  nobles  to  preserve  memorials  of  them- 
selves.    Long  autobiographies  are  found  in  the  tombs  of 
Egyptian  officials,  and  Babylonian  kings  proclaim  their 

own  deeds  in  inscriptions  upon  slabs  and  images.  King 
Sargon  of  Agade  (§  36)  is  said  to  have  formed  a  library  Libraries, 
in  his  capital  and  to  have  collected  hymns  and  rituals  in  a 
great  work  called  The  Illumination  of  Bel.  Every  Baby- 
lonian temple  also  had  its  library  where  the  temple  docu- 
ments and  sacred  books  were  placed.  Many  of  these 
have  only  recently  been  unearthed. 

30.  No  little  degree  of  comfort  in  living  was  enjoyed.  Arts  of 
The  country  houses  of  the  aristocracy  were  roomy  and 
surrounded  by  gardens  in  which  trees,  flowers  and  running  The  House, 
water  were  found.     The  Egyptians  had  a  passion  for 
flowers,  and  at  the  banquets  the  guests  were  garlanded  with 
wreaths.     The  walls  of  the  house  were  hung  with  brilliant 
tapestries.     Stools  and  couches,  the  forms  of  which  are 

still  copied  among  us,  constituted  the  furniture.  In  the 
Babylonian  cities  the  palaces  of  the  king  and  his  officials 
were  built  on  platforms  or  mounds  raised  high  above  the 
plain,  while  the  houses  of  the  common  people  were  crowded 


22  First  Oriental  Kingdoms 

together  below  them.  The  latter  were  simple  and  low, 
with  thick  mud  walls  and  flat  roofs.  The  streets  were 
narrow  and  dirty.  They  received  all  the  sweepings  of 
the  houses.  When  they  filled  up  to  the  level  of  the  house- 
doors,  these  were  then  closed  up,  the  house  built  up  another 
story  and  a  new  door  provided.  The  fire  was  started 
Food  and  with  a  fire  stick  and  bow.  The  dining-table  was  a  low 
Dnnk-  bench,  around  which  the  family  squatted  and  partook  of 
the  usual  meal  of  dried  fish,  dates  and  cakes  of  ground 
grain.  Beer  was  the  universal  drink,  though  wine  was  also 
very  common.  When  an  Egyptian  gave  an  entertainment 
he  usually  invited  his  friends  to  a  "house  of  beer,"  or  a 
roast  goose.  They  slept  on  low  couches  or  on  mats  spread 
on  the  floor.  The  Egyptian's  pillow  was  a  wooden  head- 
rest, which,  though  hard,  was  cool  and  did  not  disarrange 
Dress.  his  wig.  The  priests  shaved  their  heads,  other  people 
wore  their  hair  short,  and  all  well-to-do  persons  wore  wigs. 
Although  the  beard  was  shaven,  the  pictures  represent 
the  nobles  with  false  beards  as  a  sign  of  dignity.  In  Baby- 
lonia, on  the  contrary,  the  prevailing  fashion  was  to  wear 
hair  and  beard  long.  The  fundamental  article  of  dress 
was  the  cloth  that  was  wrapped  about  the  middle  of  the 
body.  Additions  were  made  to  this  by  the  better  classes ; 
the  cloth  was  lengthened  to  the  knees  or  a  quilted  skirt 
was  worn.  The  Egyptian  was  most  careful  about  cleanli- 
ness in  dress,  and  the  laundryman  is  a  conspicuous  figure 
on  the  monuments.  In  Egypt  nothing  was  worn  on  the 
head;  the  Babylonian  aristocracy  are  represented  with  flat 
caps.  To  go  barefoot  was  customary,  or,  at  most,  sandals 
were  worn.  Ointments  and  cosmetics  were  used  by  men 
and  women  alike  and  for  the  entire  body.  A  man's  street- 
costume  was  not  complete  without  a  cane;  in  Babylonia 


PLATE  III 


PAINTING    FROM    THE    WALL   OF   AN    EGYPTIAN    TOMB 


Architecture  23 

everyone  carried  a  seal  which  served  him  when  he  wished 
to  sign  his  name.     A  variety  of  recreations  is  illustrated  Amuse- 
by  the  Egyptian  monuments.     Hunting  birds  and  hippo-  ™ 
potami  in  the  Nile  marshes  was  the  favorite  sport  of  the 
nobles.    Bull-fights,  wrestling,  dancing,  singing,  and  play- 
ing on  musical  instruments  were  greatly  enjoyed;  even 
games  of  checkers  and  chess  are  found. 

31.  Thus  the  higher  arts  were  early  reached.     Both  The  mghe 
peoples  accomplished   much  in  architecture.     Although 

the  Babylonians  had  only  bricks  as  building  material,  they 
erected  massive  and  effective  temples  and  palaces.  A  Architect- 
mighty  terrace  forty  or  more  feet  high  was  first  built  and  ure' 
on  this  rose  the  temple  which  usually  culminated  in  a 
tower  made  of  solid  stories  of  brick  placed  one  above 
another,  each  successive  story  smaller  than  the  one  be- 
neath it — the  whole  often  reaching  one  hundred  feet  in 
height.  Egypt's  most  splendid  structures  were  the  Pyr- 
amids, built  to  serve  as  tombs  of  the  kings.  The  pyramid 
of  the  Pharaoh  Khufu  of  the  fourth  dynasty  was  a  mass 
of  limestone  and  granite  over  755  feet  square  at  the  base, 
rising  to  a  point  at  a  height  of  481  feet;  the  sides  were 
faced  with  blocks  so  nicely  fitted  together  as  to  look  like 
a  single  mighty  surface  smooth  and  shining.  In  the  heart 
of  it  was  the  funeral  chamber,  the  roof  of  which  was  so 
carefully  adjusted  to  bear  the  enormous  weight  above  it 
as  not  to  have  yielded  an  inch  in  the  course  of  the  ages.* 

32.  In  the  little  as  well  as  the  great  the  ancients  of  these 
days  showed  remarkable  skill.     In  the  engraving  of  hard 
stones,  the  Babylonian  artists  excelled,  while  the  gold  and 
brightly  colored  inlay  work  of  the  Egyptians  is  surprising. 
The  pottery  is  both  useful  and  artistic,  and  the  furniture 

*  The  roof -beams  of  granite  were  cracked  by  the  earthquake  of  27  B.C. 


24  First  Oriental  Kingdoms 

affords  models  for  the  present  day.  The  statues  from 
sculpture,  hard  granite,  or  harder  diorite,  were  cut  and  polished 
with  amazing  fineness.  It  is  irue  that  grace  and  natural- 
ness are  rarely  found  in  the  pose  and  modelling  of  the  fig- 
ures. The  Egyptians  not  only  did  not  understand  per- 
spective, but  they  mixed  up  the  profile  and  front  views  oi 
their  human  figures  in  a  grotesque  manner.  The  statues, 
however,  from  both  peoples,  while  stiff,  are  strong,  real 
and  impressive.  You  feel  that  they  are  for  eternity, 
science.  33.  What  was  known  of  the  natural  world,  its  laws  and 

its  forces,  was  a  strange  compound  of  truth  and  error. 
Many  of  nature's  secrets  had  been  pierced.  The  move- 
Astronomy,  ments  of  the  heavenly  bodies  were  mapped  out.  The 
year  of  365^  days  was  determined.  Eclipses  were  calcu- 
lated. Men  were  familiar  with  the  points  of  the  compass 
and  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac.  The  decimal  system  was 
employed,  and  joined  with  it  was  the  sexagesimal  system 
(10  x  6).  Weights  and  measures  were  carefully  worked 
out  on  the  basis  of  the  hand-breadth.  The  sun-dial  and 
Mechanics,  the  water-clock  measured  time.  The  mechanical  skill 
shown  in  building  is  amazing.  The  arch,  the  lever  and  the 
inclined  plane  were  known.  Engineers  of  to-day,  if  they 
had  only  the  means  then  available,  would  have  serious 
difficulty  in  putting  some  of  the  stones  of  the  Pyramids 
into  their  places,  if  indeed  they  could  accomplish  it  at  all. 
cosmog-  On  the  other  hand,  the  earth  was  regarded  by  the  Baby- 
lonians as  an  inverted  bowl,  its  edges  resting  on  the  great 
watery  deep.  On  its  outer  surface  dwelt  mankind.  Within 
its  crust  was  the  dark  abode  of  the  dead.  Above  and 
about  it,  resting  on  the  ocean  of  waters,  was  the  heaven, 
another  inverted  bowl  or  disk,  on  the  under  side  of  which 
moved  the  heavenly  bodies;  on  the  outer  side  lay  another 


Science  and  Religion  25 

ocean,  beyond  which  dwelt  the  gods  in  eternal  light.  The 
stars  were  thought  to  have  influence,  either  good  or  bad, 
on  the  life  of  men,  and  hence  were  carefully  studied.  The 
study  of  medicine  consisted  of  a  search  for  strange  combi-  Medicine, 
nations  of  incongruous  substances,  in  which  a  wise  pre- 
scription or  a  useful  discovery  came  only  by  chance.  The 
blood  of  lizards,  the  teeth  of  swine,  putrid  meat,  the  moist- 
ure from  pigs'  ears  are  among  Egyptian  remedies  for 
illness.  No  study  of  Nature  for  her  own  sake,  but  only 
for  practical  ends  or  from  religious  motives — this  was  the 
vital  weakness  of  ancient  science. 

34.  The  main  factor  in  the  life  of  these  peoples  was  Religion, 
their  religion.  It  inspired  their  literature,  their  science 
and  their  art.  It  was  the  foundation  of  their  social  and 
political  life.  Priests  were  judges,  scribes,  teachers  and 
authors.  Temples  were  treasuries,  fortresses  and  colleges 
as  well  as  places  of  worship.  All  this  means  that  one  of 
the  first  problems  that  these  men  had  to  face  was  their 
relation  to  the  world  about  and  above  them.  They  sought 
to  solve  this  problem  by  believing  that  they  were  surround-  General 
ed  by  higher  beings  with  whom  it  was  possible  to  get  on  in  £'JJ  of 
peace  and  harmony.  This  belief,  and  the  worship  that 
sprang  out  of  it,  was  religion;  it  had  everything  to  do  with 
primitive  society.  In  the  periods  which  we  are  studying, 
religion  was  far  advanced.  Had  you  gone  into  a  city  of 
Egypt  or  Babylonia  and  talked  with  a  priest  of  the  temple, 
he  would  have  told  you  that,  as  there  were  gods  for  every 
city,  so  his  city  had  its  god  who  cared  for  and  watched  over 
its  people;  the  king  was  his  representative  or  even  his  son. 
God  gave  rain  and  fruitful  seasons  to  the  farmer  and  pros- 
perity to  the  merchant;  he  saved  from  sickness  and  calam- 
ity; he  appointed  judges  to  give  true  judgments,  and  gov- 


26  First  Oriental  Kingdoms 

ernors  to  rule  uprightly.    In  turn  the  king  reared  the 
temple  to  the  glory  of  the  gods  and  established  the  priest- 
hood to  offer  daily  sacrifice  of  grain  and  cattle  to  them; 
he  gave  to  the  gods  of  the  spoils  of  war  and  of  the  harvest, 
and  hither  the  people  brought  their  gifts  and  paid  their 
The  Baby-    vows.     Had  you  asked  the  Babylonian  who  was  this  God, 
oTls"         he  would  nave  replied :  "  Bel, '  the  Lord' ;  or  the  Sun,  or  the 
Moon,  or  the  Storm  Wind,  or  the  Watery  Deep — all  gods 
of  power  afar  off.    Nevertheless  they  are  very  watchful 
of  man,  who,  often  sinful  and  deserving  of  punishment, 
feels  himself  dependent  on  them,  and  comes  to  them  with 
psalms  and  prayers  of  penitence  when  they  have  brought 
plague  and  sorrow  upon  him  for  his  sin."    To  the  same 
The  question  the  Egyptian  would  have  replied:  "Re,*  the  Sun, 

GodTian  wno  moves  daily  over  the  sky  in  his  boat  scattering  bless- 
ings upon  his  children,  before  whom  flowers  spring  up 
and  fields  bloom,  whom  we  praise  in  the  morning  at  his 
rising  and  at  even  in  his  setting — and  a  thousand  other 
gods  of  animals  and  plants  who  love  us  and  are  ever  near 
The  Future  to  bless  us  by  their  mysterious  presence  and  favor."  And 
had  you  asked  about  the  life  after  death  the  Babylonian 
would  have  shaken  his  head  and  spoken  of  the  future  as 
dark  and  sad  when  the  spirit,  torn  from  the  body,  goes 
down  to  the  dusky  abode  of  the  dead,  to  drag  out  a 
miserable  existence.  But  the  Egyptian,  with  hopeful  face, 
would  have  told  you  how  to  keep  the  body  as  an  eternal 
abode  of  the  spirit  by  mummifying  it  and  putting  it  in  a 
deep  tomb  far  from  decay  and  disturbance;  or  he  would 
have  spoken  of  the  fields  of  Aaru,  a  happier  Egypt  beyond 
the  sky,  where,  after  passing  through  the  trials  of  the  under 
world,  by  the  aid  of  the  god  Osiris  and  the  power  of  the 

*  Pronounced  Ray. 


The  Egyptian  Heaven  27 

Book  of  the  Dead,  or  in  the  sun-boat  of  the  god  Re,  the 
soul  would  at  last  be  united  with  the  body  in  a  blissful 
immortality. 

OUTLINE    FOR   REVIEW 

Introductory — history  a  growth — Ancient  History  the  starting-point — 
return  to  history's  beginnings — course  of  Ancient  History — three 
parts. 

I.  THE  EASTERN  EMPIRES 

Preliminary  Survey:  The  field — physical  unity — peoples — distribution — 
surrounding  folk — course  of  historical  progress — the  grand  divis- 
ions. 

I.  The  First  Kingdoms  in  Babylonia  and  Egypt. 

a.  Beginnings — movement  toward  unity  in  Babylonia — the 

Egyptian  Kingdom  (fourth  dynasty — government  and 
achievements;  twelfth  dynasty  —  government  and 
achievements). 

b.  Social  life  in  these  early  days:  occupations  (agriculture, 

industry,  trade  and  commerce) — organization  (the  king, 
nobles,  people,  slaves),  Babylonian  merchants  and 
means  of  exchange — the  supremacy  of  law — the  family 
— writing  and  literature — the  art  of  living  (house  and 
furnishing,  food  and  drink,  dress,  sport) — the  higher 
arts  (architecture,  sculpture,  astronomy,  mechanics, 
cosmogony,  medicine) — religion  (the  gods  in  general, 
Egyptian,  Babylonian,  future  life). 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  Who  were  the  Elamites?  2.  For 
what  are  the  following  places  noted:  Memphis,  Agade,  Nippur, 
Thebes,  Babylon?  3.  What  is  meant  by  papyrus,  deben,  nome, 
cuneiform,  feudal,  shekel,  hieroglyphic,  dynasty?  4.  Name 
with  dates  the  grand  divisions  of  Ancient  History.  5.  At 
about  what  time  were  the  Pyramids  built? 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  The  Early 
Babylonian  Cities.  Goodspeed,  §§  45-50.  2.  Elamite  Inva- 
sion of  Babylonia.  Goodspeed,  §§  63,  64.  3.  The  Fourth  Egyp- 
tian Dynasty.  Wendel,  pp.  39-41;  Murison,  Egypt,  §§  22-24; 
Rawlinson,  Story  of  Egypt,  chs.  3-4.  4.  The  Twelfth  Egyp- 
tian Dynasty.  Wendel,  pp.  50-57;  Murison,  Kgypt,  §§  32-35; 


28  Early  Babylonian  Empire 

Rawlinson,  Story  of  Egypt,  chs.  5-7.  5.  Babylonian  Civili- 
zation. Murison,  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  ch.  15  ;  Good- 
speed,  §§  66-93.  6.  What  countries  have  once  had  a  feudal 
system?  See  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  articles  "Feudalism" 
and  "Japan."  7.  Modern  Irrigation  in  Egypt;  the  Assouan 
Dam.  Cosmopolitan,  Aug.,  1901;  Idler,  22:  257;  Nature,  67: 
184. 

MAP  AND  PICTURE  EXERCISES.  1.  Draw  a  rough  map  of  the 
ancient  oriental  world  illustrating  the  crescent-shaped  forma- 
tion suggested  in  §  6.  Locate  as  many  countries  and  cities  as 
possible.  2.  From  plate  II,  1-4,  try  to  enumerate  the  physical 
characteristics  of  the  Semitic  type  of  man.  3.  From  plate  III 
find  as  many  illustrations  as  possible  of  the  life  described  in  §§ 
18-34.  4.  On  a  map  of  the  world  follow  the  course  marked 
out  in  §  3. 


2 THE  EARLY  BABYLONIAN  EMPIRE 

2500-1600  B.C. 

The  EX-          35.  Commerce  was  not  the  only  means  by  which  Baby- 
pansionof    j     j     influenced  the  outside  world.     Whenever  a  city- 

Babylonia. 

king  gained  power  over  other  cities  in  that  valley,  he  set 
about  extending  his  sway  over  regions  beyond.  To  the 
east,  west  and  south,  with  their  barriers  of  mountain, 
desert  and  sea,  there  was  small  prospect  of  extension. 
Elam  and  the  districts  lying  on  the  slopes  of  the  eastern 
ranges  marked  the  limit  in  this  direction.  But  to  the 
north  and  northwest,  the  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
opened  up  highways  to  the  Mesopotamian  and  Syrian 
regions  as  far  as  the  northern  mountains  and  the  Medi- 
terranean. Thither  at  a  very  early  date  the  city-kings 
led  their  armies  and  began  to  lay  the  foundations  of  an 


The  Expansion  of  Babylonia  29 

Empire.*    The  kings  of  Agade  (§  13)  were  the  greatest  of 
these  primitive  imperial  rulers  (about  3800  B.C.). 

36.  The  traditions  f  tell  us  that  Sargonof  Agade  and  his  son  Naram 
Sin  ruled  far  and  wide.     Elam,  parts  of  Arabia,  islands  in  the  Persian 
gulf,  Mesopotamia  and  regions  of  Syria  acknowledged  their  sway. 
An  ancient  record  reads  as  follows:  "The  moon  was  favorable  to 
Sargon,  who  at  this  season  was  highly  exalted,  and  a  rival,  an  equal, 
there  was  not.     His  own  land  was  quiet.     Over  the  countries  of  the 
sea  of  the  setting  sun  [the  Mediterranean  sea]  he  passed,  and  for  three 
years  at  the  setting  sun  [the  west]  all  lands  his  hand  subdued.    Every 
place  he  formed  into  one  [i.e.,  he  organized  all  into  an  empire].     His 
images  at  the  setting  sun  he  erected  [i.e.,  as  a  sign  of  authority  in  the 
west]. 

37.  When  the  kings  of  Babylon  (§  13)  had  united  all  The  First 
Babylonia  under  their  sway,  they,  too,  followed  the  imperial  Empire- 
policy  and  founded  the  First  Babylonian   Empire — the 
earliest  enduring  state  that  covered  the  larger  part  of  the 
known  world.     In  extent  it  did  not  surpass  the  limits 
which  tradition  assigns  to  Sargon,  but  the  long  and  abun- 
dant series  of  written  documents  which  have  come  from 

its  kings  bears  undoubted  testimony  to  their  rule.     The 
founder  of  the  Empire  was  Hammurabi,  a  brilliant  war-  King 
rior  and  statesman  (about  2250  B.C.).     An  inscription  fb*mmi 
illustrates  his  care  for  the  canal-system  of  Babylonia: 

"  When  Anu  and  Bel  [great  godsof  Babylonia]  gave  me  the  land  of 
Babylonia  to  rule  and  intrusted  their  sceptre  to  my  hands,  I  dug  out 
the  Hammurabi  canal,  nourisher  of  men,  which  brings  abundance  of 

*An  Empire  (Latin,  Imperium)  is  a  state  made  by  the  supremacy 
of  one  city  or  state  over  several  others.  Such  a  policy  of  making  a 
great  state  is  called  Imperialism. 

t" Tradition"  is  the  story  which  is  handed  down  by  word  of  mouth 
and  not  written  till  long  after  the  events  took  place.  Hence  it  does  not 
always  preserve  the  exact  facts. 


30  Early  Babylonian  Empire 

water  to  the  Babylonian  lands.  Both  its  banks  I  changed  into  fields 
for  cultivation,  and  I  gathered  heapsof  grain,  and  I  procured  unfailing 
water  for  the  Babylonian  lands." 

His  Law-         For  his  Empire  the  king  published  a  code  of  laws  which 
code'          contains  some  280  statutes  and  reveals  a  high  ideal  of 

justice.     Some  of  the  more  striking  and  instructive  of 

the  laws  are  the  following: 

i.  If  a  man  bring  an  accusation  against  a  man  and  charge  him  with 
a  crime,  but  cannot  prove  it,  he,  the  accuser,  shall  be  put  to  death. 

8.  If  a  man  steal  ox  or  sheep,  ass  or  pig  or  boat — if  it  be  from  a 
god  (temple)  or  a  palace,  he  shall  restore  thirty-fold;  if  it  be  from  a 
freeman,  he  shall  render  ten-fold.  If  the  thief  have  nothing  where- 
with to  pay,  he  shall  be  put  to  death. 

21.  If  a  man  make  a  breach  in  a  house,  they  shall  put  him  to  death 
in  front  of  that  breach,  and  they  shall  thrust  him  therein. 

25.  If  a  fire  break  out  in  the  house  of  a  man,  and  a  man  who  goes 
to  extinguish  it  cast  his  eye  on  the  furniture  of  the  owner  of  the  house, 
and  take  the  furniture  of  the  owner  of  the  house,  that  man  shall  be 
thrown  into  that  fire. 

57.  If  a  shepherd  have  not  come  to  an  agreement  with  the  owner 
of  a  field  to  pasture  his  sheep  on  the  grass  and  pasture  his  sheep  on  the 
field  without  the  owner's  consent,  the  owner  of  the  field  shall  harvest 
his  field,  the  shepherd  who  has  pastured  his  sheep  on  the  field  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner  of  the  field  shall  give  over  and  above  twenty 
gur  of  grain  per  gan  to  the  owner  of  the  field. 

117.  If  a  man  be  in  debt  and  sell  his  wife,  son  or  daughter,  or  bind 
them  over  to  service,  for  three  years  they  shall  work  in  the  house  of 
their  purchaser  or  master;  in  the  fourth  year  they  shall  be  given 
their  freedom. 

195-199.  If  a  son  strike  his  father,  they  shall  cut  off  his  fingers.  If 
a  man  destroy  the  eye  of  another  man,  they  shall  destroy  his  eye.  If 
one  break  a  man's  bone,  they  shall  break  his  bone.  If  one  destroy 
the  eye  of  a  freeman  or  break  the  bone  of  a  freeman,  he  shall  pay  one 
mina  of  silver.  If  one  destroy  the  eye  of  a  man's  slave  or  break  a 
bone  of  a  man's  slave,  he  shall  pay  one-half  his  price. 

206.  If  a  man  strike  another  man  in  a  quarrel  and  wound  him,  he 


Laws  of  Hammurabi  31 

»'iall  swear  "I  struck  him  without  intent,"  and  he  shall  be  responsible 
for  a  physician. 

251.  If  a  man's  bull  has  been  wont  to  gore  and  they  have  made 
known  to  him  its  habit  of  goring,  and  he  has  not  protected  its 
horns,  or  has  not  tied  it  up,  and  that  bull  gores  the  son  of  a  man 
and  brings  about  his  death,  he  shall  pay  one-half  mina  of  silver. 

In  his  concluding  words  the  king  says:  "  Let  any  oppressed  man, 
who  has  a  cause,  come  before  my  image  as  king  of  righteousnessl  Let 
him  read  the  inscription  on  my  monument!  Let  him  give  heed  to  my 
mighty  words!  And  may  my  monument  enlighten  him  as  to  his 
cause  and  may  he  understand  his  case!  May  he  set  his  heart  at  ease! 
(and  he  will  exclaim:)  'Hammurabi  is  indeed  a  ruler  who  is  like  a 
real  father  to  his  people.'  " 

38.  For  centuries  kings  continued  to  rule  in  peace  and  The 
prosperity  over  the  Empire  founded  by  Hammurabi.   Even  consuls 
when  rude  tribes  from  the  eastern  mountains,  called  the 
Kassites,  entered  the  Babylonian  plain  and  their  chief- 
tains (about  1700  B.C.)  seated  themselves  on  the  throne 

of  Babylon,  the  structure  of  the  state  remained  firm.  The 
new  people  accepted  the  civilization,  and  the  new  kings 
ruled  by  the  customs  and  laws  of  the  old  Babylonian  Em- 
pire. An  idea  of  the  extent  of  their  influence  and  the 
commercial  relations  of  their  time  is  gained  by  the  fact 
that  for  the  temple  at  Nippur  (§13)  they  brought  gypsum 
from  Mesopotamia,  marble,  cedar  and  cypress  from  the 
eastern  mountains,  lapis  lazuli  from  Bactria  in  the  far 
east,  magnesite  from  the  island  of  Eubcea  in  the  ^Egean 
sea,  and  cobalt,  possibly,  from  China,  besides  copper,  gold 
and  precious  stones  from  other  regions. 

39.  In  one  corner  of  the  Empire  trouble  arose  which  in  Rise  of 
course  of  time  cast  it  down  from  its  lofty  seat.     On  the  Assyna- 
upper  Tigris  the  subject  city  of  Assur  threw  off  the  yoke 
when  the  Kassites  came  to  power  in  Babylon.     In  the  war 


32  Early  Babylonian  Empire 

that  followed,  she  not  only  secured  independence  but 
founded  the  kingdom  of  Assyria  (about  1700  B.C.) — so 
called  from  the  city  Assur.  A  chronic  state  of  hostility 
between  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  breaking  out  now  and 
again  into  fierce  conflicts,  crippled  both  powers  and  es- 
pecially weakened  the  imperial  authority  of  Babylon. 
Her  sway  over  the  lands  to  the  northwest  and  on  the  Medi- 

Deciine  of     terranean  coast  steadily  declined  and  at  last  disappeared. 

Babylonia.    Her  y^  stm  ^^  ^  Babylon>  but  the  First  Babylonian 

Empire  perished  (about  1600  B.C.). 

OUTLINE  FOR  REVIEW 
I.   THE  EASTERN  EMPIRES. 

1.  The  First  Kingdoms  in  Babylonia  and  Egypt. 

2.  THE  EARLY  BABYLONIAN  EMPIRE,  2500-16003.0. — expansion 

of  Babylonia — First  Empire — Hammurabi — his  law-code — 
Kassite  conquest— rise  of  Assyria — decline  of  the  Empire. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  were  the  following  famous: 
Hammurabi,  Sargon  of  Agade?  2.  Who  were  the  Semites,  the 
Kassites  ?  3.  What  is  meant  by  empire,  lapis  lazuli,  tradition  ? 
4.  When  did  Hammurabi  live? 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.      1.  Sargon  of 

Agade.  Goodspeed,  §§  58-59;  Ragozin,  Chaldea,  pp.  205-214; 
Murison,  Babylon  and  Assyria,  §§  6-9.  2.  The  Fourteenth 
Chapter  of  Genesis,  verses  1-5.  Ragozin,  Chaldea,  pp.  221-24; 
Murison,  Babylon  and  Assyria,  §§  13-14.  3.  The  Reign  of 
Hammurabi.  Murison,  Babylon  and  Assyria,  §  15;  Goodspeed, 
§§  94-97-  4.  The  Code  of  Hammurabi.  The  Biblical  World, 
March,  1903,  March,  1904.  5.  The  Kassites.  Murison,  Baby- 
lon and  Assyria,  §  16;  Goodspeed,  §§  102-108.  6.  The  Cunei- 
form Inscriptions.  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  article  "Inscrip- 
tions"; Goodspeed,  §§  22-34. 


The  Hyksos  Invasion  33 

3.— THE  EGYPTIAN  EMPIRE 

1600-1100  B.C. 

40.  The  feudal  kingdom  of  Egypt,  after  the  brilliant  The 
days  of  the  twelfth  dynasty  (§  16),  fell  into  decay.     The  fnyv*sd°es 
nobles  gained  more  power  and  rose  up  against  their  kings.  Egypt- 
Foreign  peoples  invaded  the  land  and  added  to  the  con- 
fusion.    Finally,  about  the  time  that  the  Kassites  entered 
Babylonia  (§  38),   invaders    from    western    Arabia    and 
Syria  burst  into  Egypt  through  the  isthmus  of  Suez  and 

took  possession  of  the  northern  half  of  the  land.  They 
also  made  southern  Egypt  tributary,  though  the  seat  of  their 
own  power  was  in  the  north.  From  the  name  given  to 
their  leaders  they  are  usually  called  the  Hyksos. 

Manetho  (§  i5«),  as  quoted  in  a  writing  of  Joseph  us  the  Jew,  tells 
among  other  things  why  this  name  was  given  to  them.  He  says: 
"There  came  up  from  the  east  in  a  strange  manner  men  of  an  ignoble 
race,  who  had  the  confidence  to  invade  our  country,  and  easily  sub- 
dued it  by  their  power  without  a  battle.  And  when  they  had  our  rulers 
in  their  hands,  they  burnt  our  cities  and  demolished  the  temples  of 
the  gods  and  inflicted  every  kind  of  barbarity  upon  the  inhabitants, 
slaying  some  and  reducing  the  wives  and  children  of  others  to  a  state 
of  slavery.  At  length  they  made  one  of  themselves  king.  ...  He 
lived  at  Memphis  and  rendered  both  the  upper  and  the  lower  regions 
of  Egypt  tributary  and  stationed  garrisons  in  places  which  were  best 
adapted  for  that  purpose.  All  this  nation  was  styled  Hyksos,  that  is, 
Shepherd  Kings;  for  the  first  syllable,  Hyk,  in  the  sacred  dialect 
denotes  'king,'  and  sos  signifies  'shepherd,'  but  this  only  according 
to  the  vulgar  tongue;  and  of  these  is  compounded  the  name  Hyksos." 

41.  The  Hyksos  ruled  over  Egypt  for  a  century.     The  Expulsion 

of  the 
Hyksos. 


people  adopted  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Egyptians,  of  the 


and  the  kings  ruled  like  the  native  Pharaohs.     Yet  the 


34  The  Egyptian  Empire 

Egyptians  could  not  forget  that  they  were  foreigners.  A 
rebellion  broke  out  in  the  south,  gathered  strength,  and 
war  was  waged  for  years.  The  princes  of  Thebes  were 
leaders  of  the  rebels,  fighting  for  the  deliverance  of  their 
country  and  their  gods.  It  was  a  fierce  struggle.  The 
mummy  of  one  of  these  princes,  now  in  the  Cairo  Museum, 
shows  a  great  slash  on  the  head  received  apparently  in  one 
of  these  battles.  After,  perhaps,  half  a  century  of  fight- 
ing, the  foreign  princes  were  driven  out  of  Egypt  into  the 
northeast  whence  they  had  come.  The  native  Egyptians 
recovered  their  land,  and  the  princes  of  Thebes,  who  had 
led  them  so  valiantly  had  their  reward.  They  became 
kings  of  Egypt. 

rhe  New         42.  The  Egyptians  hitherto  had  been  a  peaceful  people. 

spirit!1"  They  had  enlarged  their  domains  in  the  early  days  chiefly 
by  entering  the  peninsula  of  Sinai  and  making  expeditions 
up  the  Nile  into  Nubia.  But  now  circumstances  made  it 
possible  for  them  to  do  greater  things.  The  Hyksos  had 
brought  the  horse  with  them  into  Egypt,  and  in  war  much 
more  could  be  done  by  means  of  horses.  Chariots  could 
be  employed,  longer  marches  made.  The  Egyptian  army 
had  been  trained  in  the  new  art  of  war  and  seasoned  by 
the  long  and  fierce  struggle  with  the  Hyksos.  The  Pha- 
raoh, their  leader,  had  become  a  warrior  eager  for  military 
glory.  The  gods  of  Egypt,  represented  by  their  priests, 
called  for  vengeance  on  their  enemies  and  for  the  extension 
of  their  divine  sway  over  the  distant  lands.  So  the  Egyp- 
tians embarked  on  a  new  career — a  career  of  conquest. 

Em  Pirean  Thereby  thev  transformed  Egypt  from  a  kingdom  into  an 
Empire,  the  second  Empire  of  the  Ancient  World. 

43.  The  conquering  monarchs  make  up  the  eighteenth 
dynasty  (about  1600-1350  B.C.).    The  greatest  of  them  was 


The  Eighteenth  Dynasty  35 

Thutmose  III,  who  ruled  in  the  sixteenth  century.    He  The 
made  at  least  sixteen  campaigns  into  the  northeast  through  Dynast*" 
the  regions  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  Thutmos 
Twice,  perhaps  thrice,  he  reached  the  Euphrates,  and 
even  crossed  the  river  into  Mesopotamia.     The  Egyptian 
Empire  reached  from  central  Nubia  in  the  south  to  the 
northern  mountains  and  the  Euphrates.    Egypt  succeeded 
Babylonia  in  supremacy  over  Syria. 

Thutmose  III  had  a  long  account  of  his  expeditions  written  on 
the  walls  of  one  of  his  temples  in  Thebes.  His  first  campaign  lasted 
about  six  months,  from  April  to  October,  during  which  he  covered 
about  2,000  miles  and  fought  at  least  one  great  battle  at  Megiddo. 
The  following  is  the  king's  description  of  the  battle: 

"Command  was  given  before  his  whole  army,  saying,  '  Prepare  ye, 
make  ready  your  weapons,  for  we  move  to  fight  with  the  vile  enemy  to- 
morrow.' The  baggage  of  the  chiefs  was  prepared  and  the  provisions 
of  the  followers,  and  the  sentinels  of  the  army  were  spread  abroad; 
they  said  'Firm  of  heart,  firm  of  heart,  watchful  of  head,  watchful  of 
head.'  On  the  twenty-first  day  of  the  month,  even  the  same  as  the 
royal  coronation,  early  in  the  morning  command  was  given  to  the  en- 
tire army  to  advance.  His  Majesty  went  forth  in  his  chariot  of  electrum 
adorned  with  his  weapons  of  war.  His  Majesty  was  in  the  midst  of 
them,  the  god  Amon  being  the  protection  to  his  body  and  strength  to 
his  limbs.  Then  his  Majesty  prevailed  over  them  at  the  head  of  his 
army.  When  they  saw  his  Majesty  prevailing  over  them,  they  fled 
headlong  to  Megiddo,  as  if  terrified  by  spirits;  they  left  their  horses 
and  their  chariots  of  silver  and  gold,  and  were  drawn  up  by  hauling 
them  by  their  clothes  into  this  city,  for  the  men  shut  the  gates  of  this 
city  upon  them.  The  fear  of  his  Majesty  entered  their  hearts,  their 
arms  failed,  their  mighty  men  lay  along  like  fishes  on  the  ground. 
The  great  army  of  his  Majesty  drew  round  to  count  their  spoil.  The 
whole  army  rejoiced,  giving  praise  to  Amon  for  the  victory  that  he  had 
given  to  his  son,  and  they  glorified  his  Majesty,  extolling  his  victories." 

44.  The  victorious  kings  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty  held  JJ^rs  Wlt 
this  region  for  a  century.    Then  a  new  enemy  came  down  Hittites. 


36  The  Egyptian  Empire 

from  the  north,  the  Hittites,  who  began  to  contest  the  pos- 
session of  the  northern  half  of  Syria.  The  famous  Pha- 

Ramsesii.  raoh,  Ramses  II  (1288-1221  B.C.),  of  the  nineteenth 
dynasty,  fought  with  them  for  nearly  twenty  years.  At 
last  he  made  a  treaty  of  peace  with  their  king,  which  was 
written  on  a  silver  tablet  and  copied  on  the  temple  wall  at 
Thebes.  From  this  time  the  Egyptian  Empire  practically 
extended  only  to  the  Lebanon  mountains.  A  century 
later  the  Hittite  Kingdom  disappeared  before  the  advance 
of  a  horde  of  peoples  migrating  down  the  coast  of  the  Med- 
iterranean from  Asia  Minor  (about  1170  B.C.).  Ramses 

Ramses  in.  Ill,  of  the  twentieth  dynasty,  was  then  on  the  Egyptian 
throne.  He  summoned  all  his  forces  to  withstand  the 
invaders,  and  dispersed  them  in  a  great  battle  on  the 
northern  border  of  his  Empire.  But  this  effort  ex- 

Deciineof  hausted  the  resources  of  Egypt.  Its  Empire  gradually 
dwindled  away.  Pharaohs  continued  to  rule  in  the  Nile 
valley,  but  their  power  over  Syria  was  gone.  Thus  the 
second  Imperial  State  of  the  Ancient  East  disappeared 
(uoo  B.C.). 

organiza-        4$.  Egypt  in  these  centuries  better  deserved  the  name 

Emph-e!  "  °f  an  Empire  than  did  its  predecessor,  Babylonia.  It  was 
more  thoroughly  organized.  Whenever  the  Pharaoh  con- 
quered a  city-state  of  Syria,  he  laid  upon  its  king  the  obli- 
gation to  pay  a  yearly  sum  as  tribute.  Sometimes  he  took 
the  king's  eldest  son  to  his  court  to  be  educated.  Garri- 
sons of  Egyptian  troops  were  placed  in  some  cities,  and 
governors  were  appointed  in  certain  districts.  Even  com- 
munities of  Egyptian  people  went  out  to  dwell  in  towns  of 
Syria.  Such  bodies  of  settlers  are  called  colonies.  The 
Pharaoh  kept  in  close  relations  with  his  governors  and 
subject-kings  through  constant  correspondence  with  them 


Imperial  Organization  37 

and  by  sending  out  inspectors  from  time  to  time  to  ex- 
amine into  their  affairs. 

46.  A  mass  of  this  official  correspondence  from  two  kings  of  the   Tel-el- 
eighteenth  dynasty   was  discovered   in    Egypt  recently  at  Tel-el- 
Amarna,  and  is  called  the  Tel-el-Amarna  Letters.     They  contain 
despatches  from  governors  and  princes  of  Syria.     Some  are  from  the 

king  of  Jerusalem;  other  letters  are  from  the  rulers  of  Babylonia  and 
Assyria,  with  replies  from  the  Pharaoh.     All  of  these  are  written  in   Signifi- 
the  Babylonian  character — a  fact  which  shows  how  deeply  Babylo-   cance- 
nian  civilization  had  influenced  the  Ancient  World.     Even  Egyp- 
tian kings  wrote  to  their  Syrian  subjects  in  Babylonian.     It  was 
the  diplomatic  *  language  of  the  day. 

47.  Egypt  as  an  Empire  was  very  different  from  the  The  King. 
Egypt  of  the  preceding  feudal  period.     The  feudal  nobility 

had  been  wiped  out  by  the  invasion  of  the  Hyksos  and  the 
wars  of  deliverance.  Their  property  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  king,  who  now  became  the  one  proprietor  of  all 
Egypt.  This  property  he  rented  out  to  the  people  for  a 
percentage  of  its  product.  Some  of  it  he  gave  to  the  gen- 
erals of  his  armies.  They  were  his  officials,  governors 
and  judges.  The  army  was  now  a  standing  institution,  The  Army, 
under  arms  at  all  times.  Though  not  so  at  first,  it  grad- 
ually came  to  be  made  up  in  large  part  of  foreigners  who 
were  paid  for  their  military  service.  Such  soldiers  are 
called  "mercenaries."  A  mercenary  army  was  a  danger- 
ous machine,  since  the  soldiers  were  held  to  the  imperial 
service  only  by  the  money  that  they  gained  from  it.  The 
spoils  of  the  wars  made  many  of  them  very  rich.  The 
religious  officials,  the  priests,  also  profited  by  the  wars,  The 
since  a  part  of  the  spoils  of  victory  was  given  to  the  gods  Pnests- 

*  The  language  which  different  states  use  in  dealing  with  each  other 
Diplomacy  is  the  science  of  international  relations. 


38  The  Egyptian  Empire 

of  Egypt,  whose  ministers  they  were.  The  temples  became 
wealthy  and  powerful  establishments.  Their  property 
was  not  taxed,  and  their  people  did  not  have  to  perform 
military  service.  Thus  it  came  about  that  the  chief  ele- 
ments in  the  state  were  now  three — the  king,  the  army 
and  the  priests. 

48.  In  the  Old  Testament  the  change  in  the  position  of  the  king 
is  said  to  have  been  brought  about  by  a  foreign  prime  minister,  the 
Israelite  statesman  and  hero,  Joseph.  The  Book  of  Genesis  says: 
"He  gathered  up  food  in  the  cities,  corn  as  the  sand  of  the  sea.  And 
there  was  famine  and  the  people  cried  unto  Pharaoh  for  bread;  and 
Pharaoh  said:  'Go  unto  Joseph;  what  he  saith  to  you,  do.'  And 
Joseph  sold  unto  the  Egyptians.  And  when  the  money  was  all  spent, 
Joseph  said:  'Give  your  cattle.'  And  they  brought  their  cattle 
and  Joseph  gave  them  bread  in  exchange.  And  they  said:  'Buy  us 
and  our  land  for  bread,  and  we  and  our  land  will  be  servants  unto 
Pharaoh.'  So  Joseph  bought  all  the  land  of  Egypt  for  Pharaoh. 
Only  the  land  of  the  priests  he  bought  not;  for  the  priests  had  a 
portion  from  Pharaoh,  and  did  eat  their  portion:  wherefore  they  sold 
not  their  land.  Then  Joseph  said  unto  the  people:  'At  the  harvests 
ye  shall  give  a  fifth  unto  Pharaoh  and  four  parts  shall  be  your  own. ' 
And  Joseph  made  it  a  statute  concerning  the  land  of  Egypt  unto 
this  day  that  Pharaoh  should  have  the  fifth;  only  the  land  of  the 
priests  alone  became  not  Pharaoh's." 

R.suits.  49-  As  a  result  of  its  conquests,  Egypt  became  very  rich 

in  gold  and  slaves.  Hence,  money  and  cheap  laborers 
were  plentiful  for  building  operations.  Temples  of  un- 

Archit«ct-  equalled  grandeur  were  reared.  The  capital  city,  Thebes, 
was  the  scene  of  the  most  splendid  exhibition  of  this  archi- 
tecture. The  temples  on  the  sites  now  known  as  Karnak 
and  Luxor  (parts  of  the  city  of  Thebes)  were  and  have 
ever  since  remained  among  the  wonders  of  the  world. 
Every  great  king  of  these  dynasties  enlarged  and  beautified 
them,  wrote  an  account  of  his  exploits  upon  their  walls 


Copyright,  1903,  by  A.  J.  Holman  &•  Co. 

from  "Explorations  in  Bible  Lands  During-  the  Nineteenth  Century." 

A  Babylonian  Temple  (Nippur) 


An  Egyptian  Temple  (Luxor) 
ORIENTAL    TEMPLES 


Egyptian  Literature  39 

and  enriched  their  priests  by  splendid  offerings.  The 
Karnak  temple  was  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long  and  379  feet 
wide  at  the  main  front — more  than  twice  as  large  as  St. 
Peter's  Church  at  Rome.  Amon,  the  god  specially  wor- 
shipped at  Thebes,  became  the  great  god  of  Egypt,  beside 
whom  other  gods  seemed  of  no  account.  The  kings  set 
up  colossal  statues  of  themselves  in  the  temples.  One  of 
Ramses  II,  found  in  northern  Egypt,  was  some  ninety 
feet  high  and  weighed  about  nine  hundred  tons.  Abund- 
ant wealth  gave  also  the  leisure  to  study  and  write;  hence  Literature 
the  literature  of  the  Egyptian  Empire  is  most  abundant. 
Love-songs,  hymns  to  the  gods,  theological  works,  ro- 
mances, and  letters  are  among  the  writings  preserved. 
One  of  the  most  famous  is  a  kind  of  epic  history  describ- 
ing the  deeds  of  Ramses  II  in  a  battle  with  the  Hittites. 
From  the  name  of  the  scribe  who  copied  it,  it  is  called  the 
Poem  of  Pentaur. 

The  most  stirring  part  of  it  presents  Ramses  II  cut  off  from  his 
army  and  surrounded  by  the  enemy.  Ramses  calls  upon  his  god: 
"How  is  this,  my  father  Amon  ?  Does  a  father  then  forget  his  son  ? 
I  have  done  nothing,  indeed,  without  thee.  He  is  miserable  who 
knows  not  god.  Have  I  not  erected  to  thee  many  monuments,  in 
order  to  fill  thy  temple  with  my  spoil?  I  call  to  thee,  my  father 
Amon.  I  am  in  the  midst  of  many  people,  I  am  quite  alone,  my  foot- 
soldiers  and  my  chariot  force  have  forsaken  me.  When  I  called  to 
them,  I  found  that  Amon  was  better  to  me  than  millions  of  foot- 
soldiers,  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  chariots.  The  works  of  men 
are  as  nothing ;  Amon  is  more  precious  than  they.  Do  I  not  call 
from  the  ends  of  the  world?  Yet  Re  has  heard  me,  he  comes  to  me 
when  I  call.  He  calls  from  behind  me  :  'Thou  art  not  alone,  I  am 
with  thee,  I,  thy  father  Re;  my  hand  is  with  thee.'  I  take  heart 
again.  What  I  desire  to  do,  that  happens.  Behold,  none  of  them 
are  able  to  fight  before  me,  their  hearts  melt,  their  arms  fall,  they 
cannot  shoot.  I  slay  them  according  to  my  will.  Not  one  of  them 


40  The  Egyptian  Empire 

looks  behind  him  and  not  one  of  them  turns  round.     He  who  falls 
of  them  rises  no  more." 

The  Dark  50.  Yet  in  the  higher  arts  Egypt  in  this  period  was  not 
superior.  Bigness  rather  than  beauty  was  the  ideal  of  art 
and  architecture.  Fine  writing  and  swelling  words  rather 
than  clear  and  deep  thought  were  the  rule.  Indeed,  the 
whole  structure  of  the  state  and  society  was  artificial  and 
not  a  natural  growth.  The  building  was  made  great  and 
splendid  by  slave  labor  and  foreign  money;  the  Egyptians 
were  enfeebled  by  the  luxury  which  they  enjoyed.  In  all 
that  constitutes  true  greatness  Egypt  was  not  so  strong 
as  in  the  earlier  days.  Pride  of  power  and  abundance  of 
silver  and  gold  were  eating  out  her  heart. 

Threaten-         51.  We  turn  to  observe  a  fact  which  lies  outside  the 
mentsfrom  neW  of  the  ancient  East,  but  which  is  a  prophecy  of  com- 
the  west.      jng  events.     We  saw  (§  44)  that  a  migration  of  peoples 
from  Asia  Minor  destroyed  the  Hittite  kingdom  and  struck 
a  hard  blow  at  the  Egyptian  Empire.     What  caused  their 
movement  ?    What  was  going  on  in  the  northwest  whence 
they  came  ?    To  the  west  of  Asia  Minor  lies  the  ^Egean 
The  Greeks    sea;  on  both  sides  of  that  sea  in  this  period  the  Greeks 
aerge'       had  made  settlements  and  had  built  up  a  flourishing  civil- 
ization.   We  hear  of  great  cities  like  Mycenae  in  Greece, 
and  Troy  in  the  northwestern  corner  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
of  a  mighty  contest  between  them  which  Homer,  the  Greek 
poet,  has  immortalized  in  the  Iliad.     It  is  not  unlikely 
that  the  migration  into  Syria  is  connected  with  the  move- 
ments of  which  the  Trojan  War  forms  a  part.     At  any  rate, 
now  for  the  first  time  the  West  comes  into  view  and  the 
first  conflicts  of  East  and  West — the  appearance  of  one 
of  the  most  important  moving  forces  of  ancient  and  mod- 
ern history. 


Summary  of  Egyptian  Supremacy       41 

52.  Another  people  appeared  at  this  time  which  was  The  He- 
destined  to  play  a  part  in  history.     Among  the  tribes  that  JjJJ^r> 
had  come  over  from  the  East  mto  Syria  was    Israel — a 

part  of  the  tribes  known  as  the  Hebrews  (§  8).  At  first 
they  had  wandered  through  the  southern  part  of  Syria 
(Palestine),  but  in  the  time  of  the  Hyksos  kings  they 
entered  northern  Egypt.  There,  after  the  Hyksos  had 
been  driven  out,  they  were  oppressed,  by  Ramses  II  it  is 
thought,  and  in  the  last  years  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty, 
led  by  the  hero  Moses,  they  escaped  into  the  eastern  desert, 
delivered  from  the  Egyptians  by  Jehovah  their  god  at  the 
crossing  of  the  Red  sea  (about  1200  B.C.).  During  the 
early  years  of  the  twentieth  dynasty  they  wandered  in 
the  desert.  We  shall  hear  of  them  again. 

53.  To  look  back  over  this  period  and  to  sum  it  up —  Summary 
at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  grip  of  Baby-  pe*,ed 
Ionia  upon  the  regions  of  the  west  and  north  was  relaxed 

and  conflict  with  Assyria  was  the  order  of  the  day.  Egypt 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Hyksos.  But  soon,  rising  up 
against  their  foreign  lords,  the  Egyptians  drove  them  out, 
and  fired  by  warlike  zeal,  followed  on  to  the  conquest  of 
the  east.  The  kings  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth 
dynasties  won  Syria  and  organized  the  Egyptian  Empire. 
The  rich  tribute  of  the  Syrian  states  flowed  into  the  Egyp- 
tian treasury.  In  power  and  luxury,  in  art  and  literature, 
the  Egypt  of  this  period  was  magnificent.  But  enemies 
rose  up  in  the  provinces  or  appeared  on  the  borders;  the 
Egyptians  themselves  could  not  endure  the  strain  this 
splendid  career  brought  upon  them,  and  with  the  close  of 
the  twentieth  dynasty  the  Egyptian  Empire  was  a  thing 
of  the  past. 


42  The  Egyptian  Empire 

OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 
I.    THE   EASTERN   EMPIRES 

I.  The  First  Kingdoms  in  Babylonia  and  Egypt.     2.  The  Early  Baby- 
lonian Empire. 
3.  THE  EGYPTIAN  EMPIRE,  1600-1100  B.C. 

a.  The  Hyksos  invasion — their  expulsion — the  new  warlike  spirit. 

b.  Egypt  as  an  empire — the  eighteenth  dynasty,  Thutmose  III — 
wars  with  the  Hittites — Ramses  II — western  immigration — Ramses 
III — decline,     c.  Organization  (Tel-el-Amarna  letters — the  king, 
the  army,  the  priests),      d.    Results  (wealth — architecture — litera- 
ture— the  dark  side),      e.  Greece  on  the  horizon — the  Hebrews 
appear.    /.  Summary. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  were  the  following  famous: 
Ramses  II,  Thutmose  III,  Ramses  III?  2.  Who  were  the 
Hyksos,  the  Hittites?  3.  What  is  meant  by  Tel-el-Amarna 
Letters,  nome,  empire?  4.  For  what  are  the  following  places 
noted:  Karnak,  Assur,  Memphis,  Luxor,  Nippur,  Megiddo? 
5.  When  did  Ramses  II  live?  6.  At  about  what  date  was  the 
departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt? 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  Invasion 
of  the  Hyksos.  Murison,  Egypt,  §§  36-40;  Rawlinson,  Story 
of  Egypt,  chs.  8-9.  2.  Thutmose  III.  Murison,  Egypt,  §§  45- 
47;  Rawlinson,  Story  of  Egypt,  pp.  189-206.  3.  Ramses  II. 
Murison,  Egypt,  §55;  Wendel,  pp.  87-95;  Rawlinson,  Story 
of  Egypt,  pp.  238-252;  Sayce,  Ancient  Empires,  pp.  43-46. 
4.  The  Hittites  and  Their  Empire.  Encyclopedia  Britannica, 
article  "Hittites."  5.  The  Temples  of  Thebes.  Rawlinson, 
Story  of  Egypt,  see  index  under  "Temple  of  Ammon,"  of 
"Karnak."  6.  Egyptian  Civilization.  Murison,  Egypt,  chs. 
13-15.  7.  The  Book  of  the  Dead.  Murison,  Egypt,  ch.  12. 
8.  Apply  the  following  utterance  of  an  Egyptian  Sage  to 
Egyptian  history  of  this  Epoch  :  "  If  thou  hast  become  great 
after  having  been  little,  harden  not  thy  heart.  Thou  art  only 
become  the  steward  of  the  good  things  of  God." 


Invasions  43 


4.— THE  SYRIAN   EMPIRES 

1100-900  B.C. 

54.  The  passing  away  of  the  Egyptian  Empire  about  Hewimmi- 
1 100  B.C.  was  not  followed — as  might  have  been  expected  gratlons> 
— by  the  advance  of  the  states  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia  to 

seize  her  lost  supremacy.     One  of  those  tremendous  over- 
flows of  people  from  central  and  northern  Arabia,  such  as 
took  place  from  time  to  time  when  there  was  not  food 
enough  in  the  desert  to  supply  the  population,  flooded 
the  northern  districts  of  Mesopotamia  and  Syria.     These 
peoples,  called  the  Arameans,  thus  cut  off  communica-  The 
tion  between  east  and  west.     At  the  same  time  a  similar  Arameans- 
horde,   called   the   Kaldi,   entered   southern    Babylonia.  The  Kaidi. 
Both  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  therefore,  had  all  they  could 
do  to  defend  themselves  and  could  not  advance  westward. 

55.  One  region  of  the  Ancient  World  had  now  the  op-  The  oppor- 
portunity  to  assert  itself— that  between  the  Nile  and  the  Jj^j?  of 
Euphrates — Syria.     Here  was  the  scene  of  the  attempts 

at  empire  in  the   next   two   centuries   (1100-900  B.C.). 
During  this  time  Syria  was  the  real  centre  of  historical 
life.     Four  peoples   of   this   region  came   forward   and  its  Four 
made  up  the  history  of  the  time.     These  were  the  Phce-  Peoples> 
nicians,  the  Philistines,  the  Israelites  and  the  Arameans 
of  Damascus. 

56.  The  Lebanon  mountains,  as  they  run  down  along  ThePhoe- 
the  eastern  Mediterranean  from  the  north  for  two  hundred  mcian8> 
miles,  throw  out  spurs  from  time  to  time  into  the  sea  and 

leave  here  and  there  spaces  of  coast  from  one  to  five  miles 


44  The  Syrian  Empires 

wide  and  six  to  twenty  miles  long.     In  these  petty  patches 
Land.          of  earth,  with  the  high  mountains  at  their  back  and  the 
blue  sea  before  them,  the  Phoenicians  cultivated  the  fertile 
occupa-       soil,  built  cities  and  learned  to  sail  the  sea.     Beginning 
by  trading  with  each  other  and  with  the  people  of  the 
interior,  they  went  on  to  make  voyages  to  more  distant 
parts  and  to  carry  the  wares  of  the  east  to  the  less  advanced 
western  lands.    When  the  Egyptian  Empire  ceased  to 
rule  over  them,  they  were  free  to  act  for  themselves.     One 
Tyre's          city  among  them,  Tyre,  situated  on  a  rocky  island  about 
Supremacy1  na^  a  m^e  fr°m  shore,  obtained  the  leadership   among 
them  and  became  the  commercial  centre  of  the  east  and 
west.    The  merchandise  of  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Egypt, 
Arabia,  Armenia,  not  to  speak  of  the  lesser  peoples,  was 
brought   to   Tyre.     Raw   materials   were   received    and 
turned  into  manufactured  articles  in  Tyrian  workshops — 
metals  into  arms,  toilet  articles  and  furniture;  wool  into 
cloths  which  were  marvellously  colored  by  means  of  the 
dye  made  from  shell-fish  found  on  the  Phoenician  coast. 
All  these  materials  were  taken  out  in  Phoenician  ships 
and  exchanged  for  native  products  at  trading  posts  estab- 
lished at  different  points  on  the  Mediterranean.    Already 
Phoenician    the  Phoenicians  had  settled  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  sev- 
tion  enty  miles  to  the  west.    Some  points  in  the  ^Egean  sea  were 

touched,  but  the  Greeks  were  too  strong  there,  and  the 
Phoenicians  went  on  to  the  regions  of  the  western  Medi- 
terranean. The  north  African  coast,  Malta,  Sicily,  Sar- 
dinia, the  Balearic  islands,  were  occupied.  Spain,  with 
its  mines  of  precious  metal,  was  a  rich  centre  of  Phoenician 
enterprise.  Out  into  the  Atlantic  fared  their  adventurous 
ships,  southward  to  the  Canary  islands  and  northward 
to  Britain. 


The  Phoenician  Colonies  45 

57-  Herodotus  describes  a  typical  instance  of  Phoenician  trading: 
"When  they  have  come  to  a  land  and  unload  the  merchandise  from 
their  ships,  they  set  it  in  order  along  the  beach  and  return  aboard 
their  ships.  Then  they  raise  a  smoke,  and  the  natives  of  the  land, 
seeing  the  smoke,  come  to  the  shore  and  lay  down  gold  as  much  as 
they  think  the  goods  are  worth;  then  they  withdraw  quite  a  distance. 
The  Carthaginians  upon  that  come  ashore  again  and  look;  if  they 
think  the  gold  enough,  they  take  it  and  go  their  way;  but  if  not,  they 
go  on  board  again  and  wait.  The  others  approach  and  add  more 
gold  till  they  satisfy  them.  They  say  that  neither  party  wrongs  the 
other;  for  they  themselves  do  not  touch  the  gold  till  it  comes  up  to 
the  value  of  their  wares,  nor  do  the  others  lay  hands  on  the  goods  till 
the  gold  has  been  taken  away." 

58.  Most  of  their  settlements  were  temporary  trading  The  chief 
posts,  but  in  some  districts,  where  wealth  and  prosperity  c 
seemed  to  be  constant,  they  established  permanent  colo- 
nies.    The  most  famous  of  these  were  Utica  and  Carthage 

in  North  Africa,  Tarshish  and  Gades  (Cadiz)  in  Spain, 
and  the  cities  of  western  Sicily.     The  tie  between  the 
colony  and  the  home-land  was  close.     The  mother  city  A  colonial 
usually  maintained  a  political  and  religious  supremacy.  Empire- 
Thus  Tyre  under  its  kings  was  during  these  centuries  the 
head  of  a  flourishing  Colonial  Empire. 

59.  The  Phoenicians  carried  things  more  valuable  than  Phoenician 
the  merchandise  of  the  east  to  the  western  world,  for  they  civiiiza-'0 
also  made  known  to  it  the  higher  arts  of  life.     Thus  the  tion- 
systems  of  weights  and  measures,  the  achievements  of 
eastern  art,  and,  above  all,  the  alphabet,  became  the  pos- 
session of  the  peoples  of  the  Mediterranean.     The  Phreni- 

cians  improved  upon  these  things  before  they  handed  them  The 
on.     This  is  especially  true  of  the  alphabet.     In  the  in-  Alphabet 
terests  of  their  business  activities  they  so  simplified  and 
modified  the  various  modes  of  writing  acquired  by  them 
from  the  eastern  nations,  that  we  are  not  able  to  say  from 


46  The  Syrian  Empires 

which  one  o.  the  eastern  systems,  whether  the  Egyptian, 
or  the  Babylonian,  or  the  Arabian,  the  Phoenician  alphabet 
is  derived.  We  only  know  that  the  Phoenician  alphabet 
is  the  basis  of  ours. 

The  60.  The  Phoenicians  made  their  conquests  upon  the 

ine8'  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  in  the  peaceful  ways  of  trade. 

origin.  Not  so  arose  the  other  great  states  of  Syria.  Closely  con- 
nected with  the  mighty  migration  from  Asia  Minor  in  the 
time  of  Ramses  III  (§  44),  we  find  a  new  people  in  pos- 
session of  the  broad  plain  which  lies  at  the  southeastern 
corner  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  Philistines — called 
by  Ramses  III  the  Pulsta — though  they  were  evidently 
not  Semites,  accepted  the  language  and  customs  of  the 
Semitic  cities  which  they  ruled.*  As  these  cities  lay  on 
the  main  routes  of  trade  from  Egypt  into  Asia,  their  lords, 
the  Philistines,  were  rich  and  powerful  and  flourished 
exceedingly.  They  were  a  fighting  folk,  far  superior  in 
weapons  and  the  arts  of  war  to  the  peaceful  Semites  about 
them,  and  soon  began  to  make  their  power  felt  through- 
out the  whole  maritime  plain  from  Mt.  Carmel  in  the  north 

Expansion,  to  the  highlands  in  the  east.  They  began  to  push  up  into 
the  interior  and  came  into  conflict  with  a  people  that  had 
settled  the  mountain  valleys,  some  time  after  they  them- 
selves had  conquered  the  plain.  This  people  was  Israel 
(§  52).  In  the  first  encounters  Israel  was  badly  beaten, 
although  in  fact,  as  will  soon  appear,  the  Philistine  victories 
were  only  temporary.  A  proof  of  the  importance  and 

Palestine,  renown  of  the  Philistines  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  the  name 
by  which  southern  Syria  is  known — Palestine — is  derived 
from  the  Philistines. 

*The  five  cities  of  the  Philistines  were  Gaza,  Gath,   Ashdod,  As- 
kelon  and  Ekron. 


The  Rise  of  Israel  47 

61.  Israel,  after  escaping  from  Egypt  and  wandering  Israel, 
for  a  generation  in  the  desert  south  of  Syria  (§  52),  moved 

to  the  east  of  the  Dead  sea,  crossed  the  Jordan  river  and 
burst  into  the  highlands  of  Palestine  about   1150  B.C.  origin. 
They  were  a  wild,  wandering  folk  with  a  simple  faith  in 
their  god,  Jehovah,  who  had  given  them,  through  Moses  Religion, 
his  servant,  the  Ten  Commandments,  and  was  for  them 
the  one  supreme  lord  of  justice  and  truth,  their  deliverer 
and  friend. 

The  Ten  Commandments  are  the  noblest  brief  collection  of  the 
laws  of  right  living  that  has  come  down  from  the  ancient  world. 
They  are  the  following: 

I  am  Jehovah  thy  God: 

1.  Thou  shalt  have  none  other  gods  before  me. 

2.  Thou  shalt  not  make  unto  thee  a  graven  image. 

3.  Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  Jehovah  thy  god  in  vain. 

4.  Remember  the  Sabbath  day  to  keep  it  holy. 

5.  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother. 

6.  Thou  shalt  do  no  murder. 

7.  Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery. 

8.  Thou  shalt  not  steal. 

9.  Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness. 
10.  Thou  shalt  not  covet. 

62.  After  a  century  occupied  in  overcoming  the  people  National 
of  the  region,  called  the  Canaanites,  and  settling  down  F'eUng> 
as  farmers,  they  began  to  desire  a  national  life  and  an  or- 
ganized government.     What  brought  this  to  a  head  was 

the  attack  and  temporary  supremacy  of  the  Philistines 
(§60).  A  religious  leader,  Samuel,  organized  a  band  of  Samuel 
prophets  who  went  about  preaching  deliverance  through 
Jehovah  and  stirred  up  the  people  to  rebellion.  He  also 
presented  to  them  a  king  whom  Jehovah  had  chosen, 
Saul,  a  frank,  impetuous,  mighty  man  of  valor.  He  be- 


48  The  Syrian  Empires 

Saul  the       came  the  first  king  of  Israel  (about  1050  B.C.),  and  beat 
Warrion      back  the  Philistines. 

David  63.  After  his  death  David  was  chosen  king,  another 

geero  heroic  and  magnetic  warrior,  who  was  also  a  man  of 
genius  and  statesmanship.  He  built  up  an  army  with 
which  he  defeated  his  enemies,  extended  the  authority  of 
Israel  over  neighboring  peoples  and  made  its  influence 
felt  as  far  north  as  the  Euphrates  river.  His  greatest 
work  was  the  establishment  of  the  national  capital  at  Je- 
rusalem, where  the  king  dwelt,  the  court  assembled,  jus- 
tice was  administered  and  Jehovah  was  worshipped  as 
the  national  god. 

Solomon  64.  David  was  followed  by  his  son  Solomon  (about 
o^anizer  975  B-c-)-  As  n^s  father  had  been  the  founder  of  the  state, 
so  he  became  its  organizer.  He  had  a  masterly  mind  for 
politics  and  administration.  To  break  up  sectional  feel- 
ing and  to  weld  the  state  firmly  together,  he  divided  the 
land  into  twelve  districts  as  the  basis  for  his  administra- 
tion. He  instituted  regular  taxes,  had  a  standing  army, 
entered  into  alliances  with  neighboring  states.  One  of 
the  most  important  of  these  alliances  was  that  with  Hi- 
ram, king  of  Tyre,  the  most  brilliant  of  the  Phcenician 
rulers.  Together  they  made  commercial  expeditions  on 
the  Red  sea  and  the  Indian  ocean.  Solomon  also  allied 
himself  with  the  king  of  Egypt  and  married  his  daugh- 
ter. He  made  trading  alliances  with  the  peoples  of  the 
north.  Thus  Israel  became  a  nation  among  the  other 
nations  of  the  world.  Solomon  used  his  abundant 
wealth  to  strengthen  and  beautify  his  kingdom,  build- 
ing cities  and  fortresses  at  strategic  points  for  trade  and 
defence.  Jerusalem  was  the  object  of  his  special  attention. 
There  he  built  palaces,  walls,  and  the  famous  Temple, 


The  Disruption  of  Israel  49 

the  wonder  and  pride  of  his  people,  for  the  worship  of 
Jehovah.  When  he  died,  Israel  was  the  leading  state  of 
Syria,  and  a  splendid  future  seemed  to  be  assured. 

65.  But  Solomon  was  in  advance  of  his  people  and  his  weakness 
time.     The  people  resented  his  strict  government  with  its  °0f^°^s 
taxes,  its  military  service,  its  forced  labor  on  the  palaces  Regime, 
and  forts.     They  had  been  only  two  centuries  out  of  the 

free  life  of  the  desert,  and  the  memory  of  it  remained. 
They  did  not  care  to  play  the  imperial  r61e  which  Solomon 
designed  for  them.  When  after  his  death  his  son  continued 
his  father's  policy,  the  northern  tribes  refused  to  recognize 
him  and  elected  another  king,  leaving  him  to  be  king  over 
his  own  tribe,  Judah.  This  event  is  known  as  the  Dis-  The  Dis- 
ruption (about  930  B.C.);  it  was  the  death-blow  to  the  ruptlon< 
position  of  Israel  as  a  world-power.  Henceforth  there 
were  two  kingdoms  on  the  highlands  of  Palestine — Israel 
in  the  north  and  Judah  in  the  south.  The  capital  of 
Judah  remained  at  Jerusalem.  Israel's  new  capital  was 
placed  at  Samaria.  Israel's  kings  tried  to  play  the  part 
of  David  and  Solomon  on  a  smaller  scale,  while  Judah 
was  content  to  lead  a  quiet  and  secluded  life  under  the 
descendants  of  those  great  rulers. 

66.  By  this  time  (925  B.C.)  the  Arameans,  who   had  The 
migrated  into  Syria  (§  54),  had  become  settled.     Both  Aaa>Mxa- 
David  and  Solomon  had  come  into  contact  with  them. 

One  of  their  leaders  got  possession  of  the  city  of  Damas-  At 
cus,  where  he  set  up  a  kingdom  (about  975  B.C.).    Damas-  Damascus- 
cus  was  the  chief  trading  centre  of  Syria,  the  halting-place 
of  caravans,  where  merchants  from  Egypt  and  the  East 
met  to  exchange  their  wares  and  to  supply  the  wandering 
tribes  that  came  in  from  the  neighboring  desert.    The  city 
was  beautiful  for  situation,  lying  in  the  midst  of  a  well- 


50  The  Syrian  Empires 

watered  and  fertile  valley  on  the  edge  of  the  desert,  mid- 
way between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Mesopotamian 
Growth.       valley,  between  Egypt  and  the  Euphrates.     The  Aramean 
kingdom  planted  at  this  strategic  point  soon  became  pow 
erful  and  began  to  lay  its  hand  upon  the  districts  round 
wars  with    about.     Soon  it  came  into  touch  with  Israel,  and  the  re- 
israei.         iatiOns,  at  first  friendly,  passed  later  into  enmity,  each 

power  striving  for  mastery  over  the  land  of  Syria. 
The  End  of  fyj.  Neither  of  these  states,  however,  was  destined  for 
Greatness,  empire.  The  troubles  that  had  held  back  the  greater 
powers  on  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  were  over;  the  brief 
career  of  splendor  for  the  kingdoms  of  Syria  was  at  an  end. 
Already  Assyria  was  knocking  at  the  gates  of  the  West, 
and  the  conflicts  of  Philistia,  Judah,  Israel  and  Damas- 
cus were  swallowed  up  in  the  fiercer  struggle  of  all  against 
the  oncoming  Assyrian  might.  Thus  a  new  period  of  the 
history  of  the  Ancient  East  was  ushered  in. 


OUTLINE  FOR  REVIEW 
I.    THE   EASTERN    EMPIRES 

I.  The  First  Kingdoms  in  Babylonia  and  Egypt.  2.  The  Early  Baby- 
lonian Empire.  3.  The  Egyptian  Empire. 

4.  THE  SYRIAN  EMPIRES,  1100-900  B.C. 

i.  Immigration  —  Syria's  opportunity  —  the  four  peoples.  2. 
Phoenicians  —  land,  occupations  —  Tyre,  colonization  and  colonial 
empire — services  to  civilization.  3.  Philistines  —  origin  —  expan- 
sion. 4.  Israel  —  origin — religion — organization  —  Samuel  —  Saul 
— David  —  Solomon —  disruption.  5 .  Arameans — at  Damascus — 
growth — wars  with  Israel.  6.  Close  of  Syrian  period — summary. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  Who  were  the  Arameans,  the  Kass- 
ites,  the  Canaanites,  the  Kaldi?  2.  For  what  were  the  follow- 
ing places  noted:  Carthage,  Damascus,  Jerusalem,  Thebes, 
Gades,  Tyre,  Gaza?  3.  For  what  were  the  following  persons 


The  Land  of  Assyria  51 

famous:  Solomon,  Hammurabi,  Thutmose?    4.  Prepare  a  map 
showing  the  extent  of  Phoenician  colonization. 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  The  Phoe- 
nicians. Sayce,  Ancient  Empires,  pp.  178-209;  Ragozin, 
Assyria,  ch.  3.  2.  Moses  and  His  Work.  Encyclopedia  Bri- 
tannica,  article  "Moses."  3.  The  Reign  of  David.  Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica,  article  "David";  Kent,  History  of  Hebrew 
People,  United  Kingdom,  pp.  136-168.  4.  The  Story  of  the 
Disruption,  i.  Kings,  ch.  12;  Kent,  History,  Divided  King- 
dom, pp.  1-25.  5.  The  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  Encyclopedia 
Britannica,  article  "Temple" ;  International  Encyclopedia,  art- 
icle "Temple";  Kent,  History,  United  Kingdom,  ch.  13. 


5.— THE   WORLD-EMPIRE   OF   ASSYRIA 

900-600  B.C. 

68.  The  kingdom  of  Assyria  since  the  days  of  its  be-  Assyria, 
ginning  (§39)  had  fought  with  Babylonia,  at  first  for  its 

own  existence  and  then  for  mastery  in  the  Mesopotamian  Early 
valley.  Meanwhile  it  had  pushed  up  the  Tigris  and  Conditions- 
taken  firm  possession  of  the  country  between  the  upper 
course  of  the  river  and  the  eastern  mountains.  Besides 
the  city  of  Assur,  its  chief  centres  were  Calah,  Arbela 
and  Nineveh — the  last  destined  to  be  the  capital  of  the 
Empire.  In  the  northeastern  upland  corner  of  Mesopo- 
tamia, life  was  not  so  easy  as  in  Babylonia;  the  climate 
was  colder,  the  land  less  fertile,  wild  beasts  plentiful,  the 
mountaineers  threatening.  Hence,  the  Assyrians  had  to 
fight  with  nature  and  man  for  their  life,  and  by  this  train- 
ing became  hardy  and  warlike.  They  had  to  make  their 
way  by  sword  and  spear  rather  than  by  plough  and  spade. 

69.  One  other  means  of  advancement  was  open  to  them 
—that  of  commerce  and  trade.    Their  land  lay  across  the 


52  The  World-Empire  of  Assyria 

The  Com-    ways  of  traffic  from  east  to  west  and  from  north  to  south. 

merciai       when  by  force  of  arms  they  had  established  themselves  as 

tunity.  a  nation,  they  were  tempted  by  commercial  opportunities  to 
extend  their  power  beyond  their  borders.  To  wrest  from 
Babylonia  the  possession  of  the  upper  Euphrates  was  one 
ambition,  for  that  meant  complete  control  of  the  rich  trade 
with  Syria  and  Egypt.  Another  source  of  wealth  was  to 
be  found  in  the  mountain- valleys  to  the  north,  in  the  coun- 
try called  Armenia,  for  through  them  ran  the  roads  into 
Asia  Minor.  Thus  the  Assyrians  were  led  on  to  wider 
conquests,  until  the  whole  world  lay  at  their  feet. 

Assyrian          7<>.  Their  early  efforts  at  expansion  were  checked  by 

Expansion.  ^e  ^ramean  migration  into  Mesopotamia  (§  54),  which 
forced  them  back  into  their  own  borders  and  thus  gave 
Syria  its  opportunity  for  independent  empire.  But  by 
900  B.C.  the  Arameans  had  settled  down  and  Assyria 
lifted  her  head.  Under  a  vigorous  and  fearless  king, 
whose  name  was  Ashurnatsirpal,  the  conquering  move- 

Toward  the  ment  began  anew.  He  brought  northern  Mesopotamia, 
as  far  as  the  Euphrates,  and  southern  Armenia  under  the 
yoke.  His  son  crossed  the  Euphrates  and  made  northern 
Syria  subject.  His  great-grandson  carried  the  Assyrian 
arms  to  the  southwest  as  far  as  Philistia.  Thus  by  800 
B.C.  the  Assyrian  armies  had  marched  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  Syria. 

conquest  7i.  The  next  century  saw  the  downfall  of  Babylonia, 
rlon>  when  the  Assyrian  conqueror,  Tiglathpileser  III,  in  728 

of  Egypt  B.C.,  became  king  in  Babylon.  Fifty  years  later  Egypt 
became  subject  (670  B.C.);  in  another  generation  Elam 
was  conquered  (645  B.C.).  Meanwhile  Assyrian  armies 

and  of  the  had  marched  into  the  mountains  surrounding  the  Meso- 
potamian  plain.  In  the  northwest  they  penetrated  into 


Organization  of  the  Assyrian  Empire    53 

Asia  Minor;  in  the  northeast  they  reached  the  Caspian 
sea.  In  extent  and  power  Assyria  was  the  mightiest 
Empire  that  the  ancient  world  had  known. 

72.  Assyria  reached  this  splendid   height  during  the  Assyria  at 
reigns  of  four  rulers,  the  first  of  whom  was  Sargon  (722- 

705  B.C.),  who  was  followed  in  regular  succession  by 
Sennacherib  (705-681  B.C.),  Esarhaddon  (681-668  B.C.), 
and  Ashurbanipal  (668-626  B.C.),  each  the  son  of  his 
predecessor.  Under  these  kings  Assyria  became  an  im- 
perial state.  Conquered  countries  were  organized  into  An  Empire, 
districts  under  the  rule  of  an  imperial  officer  who  had  a 
military  force  at  his  command  and  was  responsible  for 
order  and  peace ;  he  collected  the  taxes  and  administered 
justice.  Such  districts  we  call  Provinces.  Assyria  was 
the  first  to  introduce  provincial  government — a  great  ad- 
vance in  imperial  administration.  The  Assyrians  also  Provincial 
invented  the  plan  of  removing  the  inhabitants  of  a  city  ^°n"n~ 
or  district  from  their  homes  and  putting  in  their  places 
other  people  from  a  distant  part  of  the  Empire.  This  is 
called  Deportation.  It  destroyed  the  old  feeling  of  local 
patriotism  and  made  people  more  willing  to  accept  the 
rule  of  the  central  government.  Thus  the  Empire  was 
built  up  solidly  and  all  parts  of  it  united  under  the  rule  of 
the  great  king  at  Nineveh. 

73.  That  Assyria's  government  of  conquered  countries  Rebellions 
was  not  perfect  is  shown  by  the  many  rebellions  that  arose 
among  them.     Whenever  they  had  the  slightest  encour- 
agement to  revolt,  they  flew  to  arms.     Thus  Syria  was 
constantly  being  stirred  up  by  Egypt,  which  during  these 

three  centuries  had  been  slowly  growing  stronger  and  was 
trying  to  get  back  its  lost  empire.     In  745  B.C.  Damascus  in  the 
and  Israel  joined  in  such  rebellion;  as  a  result  Tiglath- 


54          The  World-Empire  of  Assyria 

pileser  III  put  an  end  to  Damascus  and  severely  pun- 
ished Israel.  The  latter,  however,  rebelled  again,  and 
perished  at  the  hands  of  S argon  in  722  B.C.  All  the  bet- 
ter classes  of  citizens  were  deported  and  the  state  became 
an  Assyrian  province. 

The  king  describes  his  capture  of  Samaria  and  punishment  of 
Israel  in  these  words:  "The  city  of  Samaria  I  besieged;  27,290 
inhabitants  of  it  I  carried  away  captive;  fifty  chariots  in  it  I  took 
for  myself,  but  the  remainder  (of  the  people)  I  allowed  to  retain  their 
possessions.  I  appointed  my  governor  over  them,  and  the  tribute 
of  the  preceding  king  I  imposed  upon  them." 

injudah.  74.  Judah's  king,  Ahaz,  had  already  submitted  to  As- 
syria, but  his  son  and  successor,  Hezekiah,  joined  in  a 
rebellion  of  the  Syrian  states,  which  brought  Sennacherib 
on  the  scene  in  701  B.C.  He  punished  the  rebels  severely, 
but  met  with  a  disaster  which  compelled  him  to  retire 
without  capturing  Jerusalem. 

The  Old  Testament  describes  the  disaster  thus:  "It  came  to  pass 
that  night  that  the  angel  of  Jehovah  went  forth  and  smote  in  the 
camp  of  the  Assyrians  an  hundred  fourscore  and  five  thousand: 
and  when  men  arose  early  in  the  morning,  behold,  they  were  all 
dead  corpses.  So  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  departed,  and  went 
and  returned  and  dwelt  at  Nineveh  "  (2  Kings  19:  35,  36). 

in  Baby-  75-  A  mighty  revolt  arose  in  Babylonia  against  Ashur- 
banipal.  The  Kaldi  (§  54)  had  been  unceasing  enemies  of 
Assyria  ever  since  her  entrance  into  Babylonia,  and  now 
secured  the  aid  of  the  Elamites  (§9).  At  this  time  a 
brother  of  the  Assyrian  king  was  governor  of  Babylonia; 
he  made  common  cause  with  them  and  invited  other  sub- 
ject peoples  to  join  the  conspiracy.  The  storm  broke  in 
652  B.C.;  only  by  the  most  tremendous  efforts  did  Ashur- 


An  Assyrian   Relief.      Hunting  Scene 


An  Assyrian  Relief.     Battle  Scene,  the  Storming  of  a  City 
TYPICAL    ASSYRIAN    SCENES 


The  Splendor  of  Assyria  55 

banipal  gain  the  victory.  The  faithless  brother  perished 
in  the  flames  of  his  palace,  and  the  other  rebels,  with  their 
allies,  were  fearfully  punished. 

76.  The  kings  of  the  family  of  Sargon  were  wealthy  Assyrian 
and  proud  monarchs.     Magnificent  palaces  were  built  y™112*" 
by  them  at  Nineveh.     Sargon  founded  in  connection  with 
his  palace  a  city  capable  of  holding  80,000  people.     The  Architect- 
palace  itself  filled  twenty-five  acres  and  had  at  least  two  U1 
hundred  rooms.     The  halls  were  lined  with  sculptured  sculpture, 
slabs   of   alabaster   picturing   the   king's   campaigns;  at 
either  side  of  the  great  door-ways  stood  mighty  winged 
bulls  carved  in  stone.    The  royal  temple-tower  with  seven 
stories,  each  story  faced  with  tiles  of  a  color  different  from 
that  of  the  others,  rose  out  of  the  palace  court  one  hundred 
and  forty  feet  high.     Inscriptions  describing  the  mighty 
deeds  of  the  kings  in  war  and  peace  were  written  on  the 
palace  walls  or  on  great  monuments  standing  in  the  courts. 
In  the  palace  of  Ashurbanipal  at  Nineveh  was  a  library  Libraries, 
consisting  of  tens  of  thousands  of  clay  books  arranged  on 
shelves.    They  consisted  in  part  of  official  documents 
and  also  of  the  choicest  religious,  historical  and  scientific 
literature  of  the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  world.    Ashur- 
banipal tells  us  of  his  youthful  training,  how  "he  acquired 
the  wisdom  of  (the  god)  Nabu,  learned  all  the  knowledge 
of  writing  of  all  the  scribes,  and  learned  how  to  shoot  with 
the  bow,  to  ride  on  horses  and  in  chariots  and  to  hold  the 
reins."     The  Assyrians,  however,  were  a  practical,  not  a  The  Debt  to 
literary,  people;  they  were  content  to  accept  all  the  learn- 
ing of  the  Babylonians  and  did  not  add  to  it.     Their  lan- 
guage, their  art,  their  religion,  all  follow  Babylonian  mod- 
els.    The  god  Ashur,  the  lord  and  patron  of  the  state, 
the  leader  of  the  armies  in  war,  stood  at  the  head  of  the 


56  The  World-Empire  of  Assyria 

gods,  the  rest  of  whom  have  the  same  names  and  charac 
teristics  as  those  of  Babylonia. 

Assyrians         77.  The  Assyrians  were  good  warriors  and  excellent 
"traSs""    administrators.    They  knew  how  to  conquer  and  how  tc 
rule  better  than  any  people  that  had  hitherto  appeared. 
They  broke  down  the  separate  nations  of  the  east  and 
welded  them  into  a  unity.     They  spread  abroad  the  civil- 
ization of  the  east  throughout  the  Empire  and  extended 
The  Fatal     commerce.  But  they  did  not  know  how  to  attach  conquered 
weakness.    peOp]es  £O  themselves  and  give  them  something  to  do  be- 
yond paying  taxes.     They  were  just,  but  not  generous; 
toward   rebels  and  obstinate  enemies  they  were  outra- 
geously cruel.     Hence  their  Empire,  although  superior  to 
all  its  predecessors,  did  not  endure. 

Ashurnatsirpal  describes  the  punishment  of  a  rebellious  city  as  fol- 
lows: "I  drew  near  to  the  city  of  Tela.  The  city  was  very  strong; 
three  walls  surrounded  it.  The  inhabitants  trusted  to  their  strong 
walls  and  numerous  soldiers;  they  did  not  come  down  or  embrace 
my  feet.  With  battle  and  slaughter  I  assaulted  and  took  the  city. 
Three  thousand  warriors  I  slew  in  battle.  Their  booty  and  posses- 
sions, cattle,  sheep,  I  carried  away;  many  captives  I  burned  with 
fire.  Many  of  their  soldiers  I  took  alive;  of  some  I  cut  off  hands  and 
limbs;  of  others  the  noses,  ears,  and  arms;  of  many  soldiers  I  put  out 
the  eyes.  I  reared  a  column  of  the  living  and  a  column  of  heads.  I 
hung  up  on  high  their  heads  on  trees  in  the  vicinity  of  their  rity. 
Their  boys  and  girls  I  burned  up  in  the  flame.  I  devastated  the  city, 
dug  it  up,  in  fire  burned  it;  I  annihilated  it." 

The  Fan  of       78.  The  fall  of  Assyria  was  sudden  and  startling.    At 

ian  Em-'"    tne  death  of  Ashurbanipal,  in  626  B.C.,  the  Empire  seemed 

Pire-  strong.     But  on  the  eastern  mountains  the  Medes  had 

been  gathering  from  the  far  east,  ready  to  descend  upon 

the  plains  in  irresistible  power.     For  a  time  Assyria  beat 

them  off,  but  they  returned.     At  last  the  province  of  Baby- 


Fall  of  Assyria  57 

Ionia  broke  away  and  allied  itself  with  the  Medes.  This 
was  the  finishing  stroke.  The  next  assault  was  successful. 
Nineveh  was  taken  in  606  B.C.,  and,  with  its  capture, 
Assyria  vanished.  So  complete  was  its  collapse  that  the 
very  site  and  name  of  Nineveh  disappeared  from  the 
knowledge  of  mankind,  only  to  be  recovered  by  the  in- 
vestigations of  scholars  and  travellers  in  the  last  century. 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 
I.  THE  EASTERN  EMPIRES 

i.  The  First  Kingdoms  in  Babylonia  and  Egypt.  2.  The  Early  Baby- 
lonian Empire.  3.  The  Egyptian  Empire.  4.  The  Syrian 
Empires. 

5.  THE  WORLD-EMPIRE  OF  ASSYRIA,  900-600  B.C. 

i.  Origin — early  conditions  of  land  and  people — the  commercial 
opportunity.  2.  Expansion — westward — southward — to  Egypt — 
to  the  north.  3.  The  Assyrian  Empire — extent — imperial  rulers- 
organization — rebellions  in  west,  in  Babylon.  4.  Assyrian  civiliza- 
tion— architecture — sculpture — libraries — debt  to  Babylon — admin- 
istration— its  weakness.  5.  Fall  of  Assyrian  Empire. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  were  the  following  places 
noted:  Samaria,  Assur,  Nineveh,  Tyre?  2.  For  what  were  the 
following  famous:  Sargon  of  Assyria,  Sargon  of  Agade,  Ashur- 
banipal,  Ramses  II?  3.  What  is  meant  by  province,  colony, 
shekel?  4.  When  did  Sargon  of  Assyria  live?  5.  What  is  the 
date  of  the  fall  of  Nineveh?  6.  What  is  the  difference  between 
Syria  and  Assyria? 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.     1.  The  Rise  of 

Assyria.  Murison,  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  ch.  3;  Goodspeed, 
§§  108-112.  2.  The  Kings  of  the  House  of  Ashurnatsirpal. 
Goodspeed,  §§  158-184.  3.  The  Dynasty  of  Sargon.  Murison, 
Babylonia  and  Assyria,  §§36-58;  Goodspeed,  §§  203-263.  4. 
The  Fall  of  Assyria.  Goodspeed,  §§  264-273;  Murison,  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria,  §§  59-61.  5.  The  °alace  of  Sargon.  Good- 
speed,  §  215;  Ragozin,  Assyria,  pp.  278-294;  Maspero,  Ancient 


58        The  Median  and  Kaldean  Empires 

Egypt  and  Assyria,  ch.  n.  6.  The  Library  of  Ashurbanipal. 
Ragozin,  Chaldea,  Introduction,  ch.  4;  Maspero,  Ancient  Egypt 
and  Assyria,  ch.  16.  7.  "The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf 
on  the  fold:"  Does  this  line  of  Byron  justly  characterize 
Assyrian  warfare  ? 


6.— THE  MEDIAN  AND  KALDEAN  EMPIRES 

600-538  B.C. 

Medesand       79.  The  Medes,  whose  sudden  attack  overthrew  the 
nUui1Hein  Assyrian  Empire,  had  been  sifting  into  the  eastern  moun- 
of  Assyria.    tams  for  more  than  a  century.    They  were  the  advance 
guard  of  a  migration  of  Indo- Germanic  peoples   (§  9) 
which  was  to  overwhelm  the  Semitic  world  (§7)  and  usher 
in  a  new  era.    Their  alliance  with  the  rebellious  province 
of  Babylonia  brought  about  Assyria's   fall  and    meant 
the  division  of  the  world  between  the  two  victors.     The 
Medes  received  the  eastern  and  northern  mountain  re- 
gions, stretching  from  the  Persian  gulf  to  Asia  Minor. 
The  Babylonians  obtained  the  Mesopotamian  valley  west 
of  the  Tigris  and  the  Mediterranean  coast-lands.     Thus 
two  Empires  sprang  up  where  Assyria  had  once  ruled. 
The  Kai-         8o.  Babylonia's  rebellion  against  Assyria  really  marked 
pi^e!  El        tne  victory  of  the  Kaldi  (§  54)  in  their  long  struggle  with 
the  Assyrians.    The  new  Babylonian  Empire  therefore 
was  a  Kaldean  Empire.     It  had  a  short  career  of  splendor 
Nebuchad-    under  its  greatest  king,  Nebuchadrezzar  (605-562  B.C.), 
who,  secure  from  outside  attack  by  his  alliance  with  the 
Medes,  devoted  himself  to  the  strengthening  of  his  Empire 
and  the  restoration  of  the  land  and  cities  of  Babylonia. 
He  had  trouble  with  the  subject  kingdom  of  Judah,  which 
rebelled  several  times  and  was  finally  destroyed,  its  capital, 


rezzar. 


The  Median  Empire  and  Cyrus         59 

Jerusalem,  burned  to  the  ground  and  the  Jews  deported  End  of 
to  Babylonia  (586  B.C.).     There  they  soon  became  an  in-  Judah> 
dustrious  and  wealthy  part  of  the  population.     The  king 
spent  vast  sums  of  money  in  fortifying  and  beautifying 
the  city  of  Babylon.     He  surrounded  it  with  a  triple  wall, 
built  splendid  palaces  and  made  magnificent  gardens  for 
his  Median  wife.     Babylon  in  his  time  was  the  largest, 
richest  and  most  wonderful  city  of  the  Ancient  World. 

81.  Meanwhile  the  Median  Empire  had  been  having  a  The 
checkered  experience.     In  the  far  northwest  it  had  come  Emp'Je. 
into  conflict  with  the  expanding  Empire  of  Lydia,  which 

had  reduced  all  Asia  Minor  under  its  yoke.     From  the 
north  new  migrations  of  Scythians,  a  wild  nomadic  folk 
from  central  Asia,  poured  over  the  borders.     In  the  east 
and  south  a  people  closely  related  to  the  Medes  was  grow- 
ing in  numbers  and  importance.     This  people,  called  the 
Persians,  was  for  a  time  in  subjection   to  the   Medes.  Over- 
Under  the  leadership  of  a  petty  prince  called  Cyrus  they  |£™T  by 
rose  up  against  their  Median  lords  and  succeeded  in  over- 
throwing them.     In  the  year  550  B.C.  Cyrus  became  king 
of  the  combined  peoples  and  founded  the  Persian  Empire. 

82.  The  Babylonian   rulers  that  followed  Nebuchad-  TheCoaii- 
rezzar  set  themselves  with  the  other  powers  of  the  world  in  Jj^*" 
opposition  to  Cyrus.     Lydia,  Egypt  and  even  the  leading 
Greek  state,  Sparta,  joined  with  them  in  the  endeavor  to 

put  a  stop  to  his  victorious  career.     It  was  all  in  vain.     He 
defeated  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  and  captured  him  and  its  Over- 
his  capital,  Sardis  (545  B.C.).     Babylon  was  then  attacked,  tt 
and  yielded  to  him  in  538  B.C.     Thus  the  last  Semitic 
Empire  of  the  Mesopotamian  valley  passed  away  and  a 
new  race  took  the  reins  of  government  over  a  wider  world 
than  had  ever  fallen  within  the  bounds  of  an  ancient  state. 


60  The  World-Empire  of  Persia 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 
I.    THE    EASTERN    EMPIRES 

J.  The  First  Kingdoms  in  Babylonia  and  Egypt.     2.  The  Early  Baby- 
lonian Empire.    3.  The  Egyptian  Empire.    4.  The  Syrian  Empires. 
5.  The  World-Empire  of  Assyria. 
6.  THE  MEDIAN  AND  KALDEAN  EMPIRES,  600-538  B.C. 

i.  The  division  of  Assyria's  empire.     2.  The  Kaldean  Empire  — 
why  Kaldean?  — Nebuchadrezzar  — war  with  Judah  — Babylon. 

3.  The    Median    Empire  —  expansion — overthrown    by    Cyrus. 

4.  Cyrus  victor  over  all — fall  of  Babylon. 


7.— THE    WORLD-EMPIRE    OF    PERSIA:    ITS 
FOUNDING    AND    ORGANIZATION 

550-500  B.C. 

The  New          83.  Not  only  did  the  Persians  belong  to  another  race 

Elements.     ^^  ^e  gem^es  of  fae  Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  but  the 

centre  of  empire  was  shifted  by  them  farther  to  the  east. 

This  centre  was  the  broad  and  lofty  region  east  of  the 

Tigris,  from  which  the  Zagros  mountains  rise.     These 

consist  of  a  series  of  high  ridges  running  north  and  south 

The  with  fertile  valleys  between.     The  whole  country  lay  on 

LanTLd     an  average  4,000  feet  above  the  sea  and  suffered  from 

People.        wide  extremes  of  climate.     The  people  who  inhabited  it 

were  vigorous  and  hardy,  simple  in  manners,  given  to  the 

raising  of  cattle  and  horses,  or,  in  the  few  fertile  valleys, 

to  agriculture.     Such  were  the  Medes  and  Persians.   Their 

capitals  lay  in  this  region — Ecbatana  in  the  north,  Per- 

sepolis  in  the  east  and  Susa  in  the  west.     From  this  lofty 

land  they  went  forth  east  and  west  to  conquest  and  the 

founding  of  their  Empire. 


The  Career  of  Cyrus  61 

84.  To  the  east  lay  the  mighty  table-land  of  Iran —  Their 
1,000  miles  long  and  700  miles  wide — girt  about  with  high 
mountains.     The  greater  part  of  it  is  desert;  only  in  the 
north  and  northeast  are  fertile  districts.     On  the  slopes 

of  the  northern  range  along  the  southeastern  coast  of  the 
Caspian  sea  lay  Hyrcania ;  farther  to  the  east  was  Par- 
thia;  far  to  the  northeast  in  the  valleys  of  the  lofty  eastern 
mountains  on  the  route  leading  over  to  India  was  the  rich 
land  of  Bactria.  The  western  lands  are  familiar  to  us — 
the  Mesopotamian  valley,  the  coast-lands  of  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  leading  down  to  Egypt,  and  in  the  north- 
west, Armenia,  stretching  away  to  the  table-land  of  Asia 
Minor  and  the  coasts  of  the  .^Egean  sea.  Such  was  the 
prospect  opening  before  the  Persians,  eager  to  enter  into 
the  struggle  for  the  possession  of  these  broad  lands. 

85.  Cyrus,  as  we  have  seen,  was  the  leader  of    the  Cyrus. 
Persians   in  this  world- campaign;    his   conquest  of  the 
Empires  of  Media,  Lydia  and  Babylonia  has  already  been 
described.     During  the  remainder  of  his  career  he  seems  His  career, 
to  have  added  the  eastern  lands  to  his  domain  and  is  said 

to  have  died  in  battle  with  an  insignificant  folk  on  the  far 
northeastern  borders  (530  B.C.).  At  the  time  of  his  death 
his  eldest  son,  Cambyses,  was  the  heir  to  the  throne,  and  a 
younger  son,  Bardiya,  was  governor  of  the  northeastern 
lands.  Cyrus  made  a  deep  impression  upon  the  men  of  His  char- 
his  own  and  of  later  times.  A  Jewish  prophet  hailed  him  acter' 
as  the  one  called  by  Jehovah  to  deliver  the  Jews  from  their 
Babylonian  captivity.  The  Greek,  Herodotus,  calls  him 
the  father  of  his  people,  and  says  that  in  the  estimation  of 
the  Persians  he  was  above  all  comparison,  being  of  all 
those  of  his  time  the  bravest  and  .the  best  beloved. 

86.  For  Cambyses,  his  successor  (530-522  B.C.),  one  Cambyses. 


62  The  World-Empire  of  Persia 

region  remained  unconquered — Egypt.  This  he  added  to 
his  domains.  Before  departing  for  Egypt  he  had  caused 
Bardiya  to  be  put  to  death  for  fear  of  his  attempting  to 
seize  the  throne.  But  this  did  not  prevent  a  pretender 
named  Gaumata  from  stirring  up  rebellion  during  his  ab- 
sence in  Egypt,  and  Cambyses  died  while  returning  to  pun- 
ish him.  It  seemed  that  the  pretender  might  succeed,  but 

Darius  Darius,  a  cousin  of  Cambyses,  was  able  to  kill  the  rebel 
and  after  fierce  struggles  in  the  heart  of  the  realm  to  secure 
the  throne.  He  ruled  for  thirty-five  years  (521-486  B.C.) 
with  splendid  vigor  and  wise  statesmanship. 

The  organ-      87.  Persia,  on  the  accession  of  Darius,  occupied  the  en- 

the  Empire,  tire  known  world  of  the  East.  This  world  was  a  natural 
geographical  whole,  some  3,000  miles  in  length  and  from 
500  to  1,500  miles  in  width,  surrounded  for  the  most  part 
by  seas,  mountains  or  deserts — "more  than  half  the  size 
of  modern  Europe."  But  little  attention  as  yet  had  been 
given  to  its  organization.  This  was  the  first  and  most 
memorable  work  of  Darius.  He  followed  the  Assyrian 
system  (§  72)  and  improved  upon  it.  The  Empire  was 
divided  into  about  twenty  provinces,  each  in  charge  of 

officials  an  official  called  the  satrap.  Two  assistants  were  given 
him,  a  secretary  and  a  general.  All  were  appointed  by 
the  king;  each  was  independent  of  the  others  and  kept 
watch  upon  them.  This  arrangement  made  the  three 
efficient  and  kept  them  faithful.  Each  province  had  to 

Taxes  pay  taxes  according  to  its  ability ;  so  wisely  was  the  income 
from  all  sources  organized  that  the  sum  realized  was  not 
far  from  a  billion  dollars  yearly.  A  system  of  coinage 
was  instituted  and  three  royal  coins  were  minted — the 
gold  daric  ($5),  the  silver  stater  (50  cents)  and  the  silver 

Amy.         drachma  (25  cents).  The  army  was  made  up  of  an  Imperial 


ASSYRIAN    EMPIRE. 

bti 


The  Persian  Provincial  System          63 

guard,  of  native  Medes  and  Persians,  the  "Immortals," 
and  of  troops  from  the  various  provinces.  The  strongest 
corps  of  the  service  was  the  cavalry  armed  with  the  bow. 
In  one  thing  especially  the  Persian  government  was  su- 
perior to  those  that  had  gone  before — in  its  provincial  careof 
system.  The  kings  took  special  interest  in  the  affairs  of  Proyinces; 
the  province  to  secure  its  peace  and  prosperity.  Its  cus- 
toms and  religion  were  not  interfered  with.  The  satrap 
was  enjoined  to  secure  justice  and  protection  to  the  in- 
habitants. Trade  was  encouraged.  Roads  were  built, 
and  travel  was  made  safe  and  comfortable.  A  royal  post 
carried  messages  from  the  capital  over  these  roads  to  the 
ends  of  the  Empire. 

Herodotus  describes  the  Royal  Post  in  these  words:  There  is 
nothing  mortal  which  accomplishes  a  journey  with  more  speed  than 
these  messengers,  so  skilfully  has  this  been  invented  by  the  Persians: 
for  they  say  that  according  to  the  number  of  the  days  of  which  the 
entire  journey  consists,  so  many  horses  and  men  are  set  at  intervals, 
each  man  and  horse  appointed  for  a  day's  journey.  Neither  snow 
nor  rain  nor  heat  nor  darkness  of  night  prevents  each  one  of  these 
from  accomplishing  the  task  proposed  to  him  with  the  very  utmost 
speed.  The  first  rides  and  delivers  the  message  with  which  he  is 
charged  to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third;  and  so  it  goes 
through  handed  from  one  to  the  other. 

88.  Physically  the  early  Persians  were  great,  strong  The  Early 
men,  with  thick  hair  and  beard,  clear-eyed  and  active;  in  Persians- 
character  they  were  pure-hearted  and  brave.     The  com- 
mon people  were  intensely  devoted  to  their  chiefs,  who 
exhibited  the  characteristic  Persian  virtues  at  their  high- 
est.   Herodotus  tells  us  that  the  training  of  the  sons  of 
the  nobles  consisted  in  riding,  shooting  the  bow  and  speak- 
ing the  truth.    Their  religion  was  lofty  and  inspiring.    By 


64  The  World-Empire  of  Persia 

Their  their  prophet  Zoroaster,  who  lived  about  600  B.C.,  they 
Religion.  were  taUgjlt  tnat  two  SUpreme  divine  Powers  were  in  con- 
flict for  the  mastery  of  the  world — the  Power  of  Good  and 
the  Power  of  Evil.  Zoroaster  called  upon  them  to  choose 
the  Good  and  fight  for  him  against  the  Evil,  to  hate  the 
Lie  and  to  love  the  Truth.  Thus,  all  life  was  for  them  a 
moral  conflict,  brightened  by  the  faith  that  the  Good  and 
True  would  finally  be  victorious.  This  simple  and  sub- 
lime doctrine  made  them  men  of  courage,  nobility  and 
virtue,  conscious  of  a  mission  to  fulfil  in  the  world. 
Effect  of  89.  But  they  were  still  an  uncultivated  folk.  When 
Them™  ° *  tnev  came  mto  possession  of  the  wide  Eastern  world  with 
its  higher  culture  and  its  lower  morals,  they  were  gradu- 
ally corrupted.  They  accepted  the  higher  culture,  but 
they  were  also  affected  by  the  lower  morality.  This 
change  appears  prominently  in  the  royal  court.  The 
Babylonian  forms  of  court-life  were  adopted.  Persian 
devotion  to  the  chief  became  slavish  subjection  to  the 
Great  King,  whose  slightest  wish  was  law.  The  sudden 
increase  of  wealth,  following  upon  the  possession  of  the 
world,  produced  luxury  and  feebleness.  In  the  realm  of 
art  and  architecture  the  ideals  and  achievements  of  Assyria 
and  Egypt  were  the  models.  Magnificent  royal  palaces 
at  Susa  and  Persepolis  show  little  if  anything  that  is  new 
in  artistic  style.  An  imposing  grandeur  appears,  rising 
out  of  the  combination  of  all  the  old  forms  that  the  artists 
of  the  Semitic  world  had  worked  out,  but  that  is  all.  Of 
course  these  changes  in  manners  and  culture  came  slowly. 
Later  history  was  to  reveal  how  low  the  Persians  were  to 
fall  before  their  work  was  done  and  their  Empire  was 
swept  away. 

90.  Besides  his  scheme  of  organization,  Darius  extended 


Persia  and  the  Greek  States  65 

his  Empire  by  means  of  war.     In  the  far  east  he  advanced  wars  of 
into  India  and  added  the  valley  of  the  Indus  river  to  his  Danus- 
dominions.     In  the  west  he  marched  through  Asia  Minor 
across  the  Bosphorus  to  attack  the  Scythians  (515  B.C.). 
This  expedition  brought  him  into  close  contact  with  the  contact 
Greeks.     It  was  the  most  important  among  a  series  of  Q^CC 
events  which  led  to  the  wars  between  the  Persian  Empire 
and  the  Greek  States.     With  these  wars  the  Greeks  came 
fully  into  the  current  of  the  world's  history,  to  hold,  hence- 
forth, the  commanding  position.     Hence  the  centre  of  our 
study  shifts  from  the  east  to  the  west,  from  Persia  to 
Greece.     The  old  world  of  Asia  falls  back;  the  new  world  A  New  Age. 
of  Europe  takes  its  place  (500  B.C.). 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 
I.     THE   EASTERN   EMPIRES 

I.  The  First  Kingdoms  in  Babylonia  and  Egypt.  2.  The  Early  Baby- 
lonian Empire.  3.  The  Egyptian  Empire.  4.  The  Syrian  Empires. 
5.  The  World-Empire  of  Assyria.  6.  The  Median  and  Kaldean 
Empires. 

7.  THE  WORLD-EMPIRE  OF  PERSIA;  Early  Period,  550-500  B.C. 

I.  The  new  elements — land — people — outlook.  2.  The  kings — 
Cyrus,  career  and  character — Cambyses — Darius.  3.  Organiza- 
tion— officials — divisions — taxes — coinage — army — care  of  prov- 
inces. 4.  Social  life  —  character  of  people  —  religion  —  effect  of 
culture.  5.  Wars  of  Darius — contact  with  Greece — its  meaning. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  were  the  following  famous: 
Cyrus,  Nebuchadrezzar,  Darius?  2.  Who  were  the  Scythians, 
the  Lydians,  the  Jews,  the  Kaldi?  3.  For  what  are  the  follow- 
ing noted:  Sardis,  Carthage,  Susa,  Tyre,  Persepolis?  4.  What 
is  meant  by  drachma,  papyrus,  satrap,  province?  5.  When  did 
Nebuchadrezzar  live?  6.  When  did  Cyrus  live? 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  The  Baby- 
lon of  Nebuchadrezzar.  Murison,  Babylonia  and  Assyria, 


66  Summary  of  Oriental  History 

§  67;  Goodspeed,  §§  299-303;  Ragozin,  Media,  etc.,  ch.  9. 
2.  The  Victories  of  Cyrus.  Ragozin,  Media,  etc.,  ch.  n.  3.  The 
Story  of  the  Accession  of  Darius.  Herodotus,  Book  II,  pp. 
67-88;  Ragozin,  Media,  etc.,  ch.  13.  4.  The  Organization  of 
the  Persian  Empire.  Sayce,  Ancient  Empires,  pp.  247-250;  Ra- 
gozin, Media,  etc.,  pp.  384-391.  5.  The  Scythian  Expedition 
of  Darius.  Herodotus,  Book  IV,  pp.  1-142;  Ragozin,  Media, 
etc.,  pp.  412-429.  6.  The  Palaces  of  Persepolis.  Sayce,  An- 
cient Empires,  pp.  270-272;  Ragozin,  Media,  etc.,  pp.  391-411. 


Meaning  of       Qi.  Thus  the  history  of  the  supremacy  of  the  Ancient 

History.  East  comes  to  an  end.  In  gathering  up  the  meaning  of  it 
we  notice  several  important  facts : 

Beginnings.  i.  It  was  a  time  of  Beginnings  in  government,  in  the  arts 
of  life,  in  science,  in  literature  and  in  religion.  "All  be- 
ginnings are  difficult,"  says  the  Greek  proverb.  Most 
difficult  and  therefore  most  important  and  instructive  were 
these  beginnings  of  mankind  in  learning  how  to  live  in  the 
world  and  in  preparing  the  way  for  something  better. 

Progress.  2.  It  was  an  age  of  Progress.  Men  were  not  content 
with  what  they  had  first  gained,  but  kept  seeking  some- 
thing better.  They  found  out  better  methods  of  getting 
a  living  and  making  war,  of  building  cities  and  governing 
states,  of  writing,  of  doing  business,  and  of  enjoying  them- 
selves. They  learned  more  about  themselves,  about  their 
relations  to  one  another,  to  the  world  in  which  they  lived 
and  to  the  higher  powers. 

Govern-  3.  The  Forms  and  Ideals  of  Government  were  valuable 

and  instructive.  The  fundamental  institution  was  Mon- 
archy. The  king  was  the  head  of  the  State;  he  was  the 

Monarchy.  State.  The  purpose  of  the  state  was  threefold :  the  wor- 
ship of  the  gods,  the  glory  of  the  king  and  the  maintenance 
of  justice  for  the  citizens.  The  one  produced  stately  tern- 


Culture  and  Religion  67 

pies,  artistic  work  of  every  sort,  literature  and  a  measure 
of  order  and  comfort  in  the  community.  The  second  gave  Empire, 
rise  to  the  Imperial  States  whose  history  we  have  followed, 
with  their  wealth,  their  palaces,  their  armies.  The  third 
is  the  source  of  those  systems  of  law  and  the  arrangements 
for  prosperity  and  progress  that  call  for  wonder  and  ad- 
miration. Especially  is  the  notion  of  Universal  Empire, 
entertained  by  the  ancient  rulers  and  in  part  realized 
by  some  of  them,  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  permanent 
ideals  which  the  world  has  known. 

4.  In  this  age  the  foundations  were  laid  for  many  Arts  Culture, 
and  Sciences.     Work  done  by  these  men  in  the  precious 
metals,  in  stone  and  wood,  has  in  some  respects  never 

been  surpassed.  Arithmetic,  chronology,  grammar,  en- 
gineering, astronomy  and  metrology,  not  to  speak  of  other 
sciences,  reached  no  mean  height  of  development  among 
them. 

5.  Among  these  peoples  Religion  had  a  supreme  place  Religion, 
and  power.     The  gods  were  in  and  through  all  things,  and 

all  things  were  for  their  glory.  A  high  idea  of  the  divine 
power  prevailed;  in  course  of  time  the  gods  came  to  be 
known  as  guardians  of  right  and  truth.  By  one  of  these 
peoples  the  great  array  of  deities  was  condensed  into  two 
divine  powers,  one  of  good  and  one  of  evil,  standing  over 
against  each  other;  these  men  looked  confidently  for  the 
final  victory  of  the  good  god  and  were  encouraged  thereby. 
Yet  another  people,  Israel,  believed  in  one  God  alone,  the 
Lord  of  Righteousness  and  Mercy;  his  prophets  taught  a 
knowledge  of  him  which  the  world  has  never  lost  and 
never  surpassed.  In  a  later  day  it  became  the  foundation 
of  the  Christian  faith,  professed  by  the  nations  of  the  west- 
ern world. 


68  Summary  of  Oriental  History 

Relation  to  6.  In  a  word,  the  history  of  these  peoples  is  important 
ourselves.  Because  the  record  and  influence  of  all  their  achievements 
have  passed  on  from  the  east  to  the  west  and  have  entered 
into  our  life.  Even  their  errors  and  mistakes,  their  sin  and 
its  punishment,  contain  instructive  lessons  for  ourselves. 
What  they  have  achieved  of  good  and  abiding  worth  is  in 
large  measure  the  source  of  our  higher  life,  our  science, 
our  art,  our  governments  and  our  religion. 


GENERAL  REVIEW  OF  PART  I 

TOPICS  FOR  CLASS  DISCUSSION.  1.  What  were  the  chief 
influences  of  the  geography  of  the  Oriental  world  upon  its  his- 
tory? See  §§  5,  6,  8,  35,  56,  68,  69,  83,  84.  2.  How  did  the 
invasions  of  the  desert  and  mountain  tribes  affect  the  history 
of  the  Oriental  world?  See  §§  9,  10,  38,  40,  51,  54,  61,  79,  81. 
3.  What  were  the  chief  commercial  products  of  the  Oriental 
world  and  from  what  countries  did  each  come?  See  §§  18, 
19,  20,  58,  59.  4.  What  special  contribution  to  modern  civil- 
ization was  made  by  each  of  the  great  peoples  studied? 
5.  Trace  the  growth  of  government  in  the  Oriental  world, 
showing  how  new  ideas  were  added  from  time  to  time.  See 
§§  12,  13,  14,  17,  21,  42,  45,  58,  64,  72,  87.  6.  What  were 
the  main  points  of  difference  between  the  various  religions  of 
the  Oriental  world?  See  §§  34,  49,  61,  88. 

MAP  AND  PICTURE  EXERCISES.*  1.  Compare  Babylonian- 
Assyrian  and  Egyptian  architecture  as  illustrated  in  Plate  IV. 
2.  Enumerate  such  defects  in  Egyptian  art  as  appear  in  Plates 
III,  XIII.  3.  From  a  study  of  Plate  V,  what  subjects  were 
most  successfully  treated  by  the  Assyrian  artists?  How  does 

«y  this  illustrate  the  national  character?  4.  Draw  an  outline  map 
from  memory  of  the  field  of  ancient  Oriental  history,  locating 
as  many  places  and  countries  mentioned  as  possible. 

TOPICS  FOR  WRITTEN  PAPERS.  1.  The  Pyramids.  Mas- 
pero,  Dawn  of  Civilization,  pp.  363-377;  Egyptian  Archaeol- 
ogy, ch.  3;  Rawlinson,  Story  of  Egypt,  ch.  4;  History  of 

*See  Appendix  II  and  Tarbell,  History  of  Greek  Art,  pp.  1-46. 


The  Eastern  Empires  69 

Egypt,  ch.  7;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  article  "Egypt"  (sub- 
division "Pyramids").  2.  Compare  the  laws  of  Hammurabi 
given  in  the  text  with  the  laws  of  the  Hebrews  contained  in 
Exodus,  chs.  21-23;  Deuteronomy  15:  12-14;  *9:  16-21. 
See  also  The  Biblical  World,  March,  1903,  pp.  175-190.  3. 
What  did  the  ancient  Oriental  people  think  of  the  world? 
Maspero,  Dawn  of  Civilization,  pp.  16-22;  Encyclopedia  Bri- 
tannica, article  "Cosmology."  4.  Write  an  account  of  the  de- 
parture of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  from  the  standpoint  of  an 
Egyptian,  using  the  account  given  in  Exodus,  chs.  1-14,  as 
the  basis  of  your  study.  5.  What  nations  had  stories  of  the 
flood?  Ragozin,  Story  of  Chaldea,  ch.  6;  Encyclopedia  Britan- 
nica, article  "Cosmology,"  also  "Deluge."  6.  What  did  the  Nile 
do  for  Egypt?  Maspero,  Dawn  of  Civilization,  ch.  i;  Rawlin- 
son,  Story  of  Egypt,  ch.  i;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  article 
"Egypt."  7.  The  Education  of  an  Assyrian  Boy.  Sayce,  Baby- 
lonians and  Assyrians,  ch.  3;  Goodspeed,  History  of  Baby- 
lonians and  Assyrians,  §  261.  8.  Life  and  Times  of  Nebuchad- 
rezzar. Goodspeed,  Part  IV,  chs.  2-3;  Maspero,  Passing  of  the 
Empires,  pp.  513-568;  Harper,  in  Biblical  World,  July,  1899; 
Ragozin,  Media,  etc.,  ch.  9. 


II.   THE   GREEK   EMPIRES 

600-200  B.C. 

PRELIMINARY  SURVEY 

physical  92.  From  the  vast  plains,  broad  rivers,  mighty  moun- 
of^cece7  tain-chains,  trackless  deserts,  high  table-lands,  magnificent 
empires  of  the  Ancient  East — where  the  works  of  nature 
and  man  alike  are  huge,  massive,  steadfast  and  over- 
powering, and  history  is  measured  by  centuries  or  even 
millenniums — we  turn  to  a  very  different  scene  in  passing 
westward  across  the  ALgean  sea  to  Greece.  A  petty 
peninsula,  its  rivers  are  rushing  torrents  on  which  no  ship 
can  sail,  and  its  plains  are  deep,  narrow  basins  between 
high  ridges  and  peaks.  Taken  in  its  fullest  extent  it  is 
less  than  half  as  large  as  the  State  of  Illinois.  Still, 
though  Greece  is  small,  it  has  striking  natural  character- 
istics. The  lack  of  rivers  is  made  up  by  innumerable 
bays  and  inlets  from  the  sea,  so  that  there  is  no  spot  of 
land  which  is  more  than  forty  miles  from  it.  Half-way 
down  the  peninsula  on  its  western  side  a  deep  gulf — the 
gulf  of  Corinth — almost  cuts  off  the  southern  part,  the 
Peloponnesus,  while  on  the  south  are  two  bays,  and 
on  the  east  five,  one  of  which  actually  parts  Eubcea 
from  the  mainland.  Its  mountains,  though  pursuing  a 
general  course  from  northwest  to  southeast,  fly  off  in 
every  direction  from  the  Pindus  range  in  the  north  to 
meet  the  sea,  cutting  the  land  up  into  a  variety  of  inde- 
70 


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The  Geography  of  Greece  71 

pendent  valleys  and  glens,  and  towering  above  them  in 
ridges  and  peaks  from  five  thousand  to  eight  thousand 
feet  in  height,  sometimes  bare  and  stern,  often  thickly 
wooded  or  crowned  with  snow.  Over  sea,  valley  and 
mountain  gleams  a  brilliant  sky;  the  play  of  light  and 
shade  upon  the  varied  scene  is  indescribably  beautiful. 
From  the  points  of  bold  promontories  that  stand  out  into 
the  ^gean  sea,  islands,  large  and  small,  summits  of  lost 
mountain-peaks,  push  forth  one  after  the  other  toward 
the  eastward  and  go  to  meet  similar  islands  that  dot  the 
shores  of  Asia  Minor.  Far  to  the  south,  Crete  lies  across 
the  foot  of  the  sea,  sixty  miles  from  the  extremity  of  the 
Peloponnesus  and  barely  twice  as  far  from  Asia  Minor. 

93.  Observe  what  the  position  of  Greece  and  her  re-  itsinflu- 
lation  to  the  sea  meant  for  the  life  and  history  of  her  "retk  His. 
people.    The    y£gean,    pushing    far    upward,    received  tory- 
the  trade  of  the  northwest,  while  it  also  opened  into  the 
Black  sea,  down  to  the  northern  and  eastern  shores  of 
which  came  the  roads  from  the  far  northeast.    The  bays 
on  the  eastern  side  of  Greece,  coupled  with  the  innumer- 
able islands  that  stretched  across  the  sea,  made  access  easy 
for  men  coming  from  the  east,  the  early  home  of  civiliza- 
tion.   Thus  Greece  lay  at  the  very  spot  where  the  way?  on  Rei». 
of  progress  met,  from  north  and  east  and  south,  and  $£0*14°  ** 
extended  welcoming  hands,  to  the  bearers  of  the  world's, 
best  gifts,    Yet  the  land  was,  also  protected,    No  hostile 
force  could  easily  come  down  through  the  high  mountains, 
of  the  north.     Should  ships  br^ng  enemies,  the  coasts 
alone  could  be  seized;  the  interior  remained  easily  der 
fensible.     Moreover,    intercourse    by    land    in    Greece, 
difficult  on  account  of  the  mountains,  was  made  easy  by 
inlets  from  the  sea.    Hence  the  Greeks,  like  the  Phce.- 


72 


The  Greek  Empires 


On  the 
Politics  of 
Greece. 


On  the 
Greek 
Character. 


nicians  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean  (§  56),  were  early 
thrust  forth  on  the  water,  and  learned  how  to  defend  their 
shores  as  well  as  to  engage  in  commerce  with  outside 
peoples.  Thus  Greece  was  at  the  same  time  an  accessible 
and  a  defensible  land. 

94.  The  mountains  had  another  important  influence 
on  Greek  history.  The  narrow  secluded  valleys,  into 
which  they  broke  up  the  land,  became  seats  of  petty 
communities,  each  independent  of  the  other,  each  zealous 
to  maintain  its  own  independence  and  each  protected 
in  its  separateness  by  the  mountain  barriers  which  girt  it 
about.  Hence,  for  a  long  period,  the  history  of  Greece 
is  a  history  of  a  variety  of  small  states;  unity  of  political 
life  was  the  last  thing  secured  and,  when  secured,  was 
with  difficulty  maintained.  On  the  other  hand,  this 
separateness  in  Greek  political  life  had  its  advantages. 
A  wonderful  variety  in  forms  of  society  and  politics  was 
produced,  each  state  working  out  its  own  local  problems 
with  substantial  freedom  from  interference  and  with  the 
incitement  of  healthy  rivalry  with  its  neighbors. 

95  •  In  such  physical  conditions  and  relations  a  peculiar 
type  of  man  was  produced  that  the  world  had  not  seen 
before.  In  these  little  communities  the  single  man 
counted  for  much.  The  individual  was  not  lost  in  the 
crowd;  hence  individuality  was  an  early  trait  of  the  Greek 
character.  Devotion  to  his  own  state  and  pride  in  its 
independence  gave  him  patriotism  and  a  love  of  freedom. 
The  beauty  and  variety  of  the  natural  world  all  about 
bred  in  him  sensitiveness  to  form  and  color,  while  its 
steep,  narrow  and  rugged  ways  made  him  healthy,  strong 
and  supple.  All  his  circumstances  called  for  quickness 
of  body  and  mind,  stimulated  him  to  thought  and  action, 


The  People  of  Greece  73 

and  brought  out  a  variety  of  resource  and  achievement 
that  has  been  the  admiration  and  the  inspiration  of 
mankind.  Thus  it  has  been  well  said  that  "the  Greeks 
owed  their  greatness  largely  to  the  country  in  which  it 
was  their  fortune  to  dwell." 

96.  The  Greeks  belonged  to  the  Indo-European  family  The  Greek 
(§  9) ,  as  is  indicated  by  their  language.     If  we  may  judge     eop  e' 
from  the  ancient  statues  and  from  the  prevailing  Greek 

type  of  to-day,  they  were  tall  and  spare  in  build,  with  oval 
face,  long  straight  nose,  bright  large  eye,  fair  complexion, 
of  graceful  and  elastic  carriage  and  a  general  harmony  of 
form,  free  from  signal  excess  or  defect  of  any  one  charac- 
teristic. They  were,  in  disposition,  genial  and  sunny, 
imaginative  and  inquiring,  temperate  and  chaste,  vibrating 
between  reasonableness  and  emotion,  with  an  ambition 
which  was  not  always  nice  about  the  means  to  gain  its 
end,  and  a  vivacity  which  leaned  toward  fickleness. 

97.  Thus  situated  and  endowed,  the   Greeks  made  Course  of 
their  history.     Of  this  history  we  now  are  to  take  a  brief  ^te0kry- 
survey  in  advance  of  its  fuller  treatment.* 

When  civilization  began  in  Greece  is  unknown.     Our  first  knowl-    I-.  Begin' 
edge  reveals  the  dim  outlines  of  states  on  the  coasts  and  islands  of 
the  ^Egean  sea,  ruled  over  by  kings  with  much  splendor;  the  arts  of 
peace  and  war  were  far  advanced;  commerce  with  one  another  and 
with  the  east  was  flourishing.     The  cities  of  Mycenas  and  Troy  and 
those  upon  the  island  of  Crete  were  the  chief  centres;  the  period  is 
sometimes  called  the  Mycenaean  Age  (to  about  1000  B.C.).     About    0)  The 
the  beginning  of  the  first  millennium  hordes  of  migrating  peoples   Ageena 
descended  from  northwest  Greece,  chief  among  whom  were  the 
Dorians.    Their  rude  onslaught  broke  up  the  kingdoms  and  the  civ- 
ilization of  the  age,  cut  off  Greece  from  relations  with  the  east  and 
compelled  the  building  up  of  new  political  and  social  institutions. 

*  See  Preface  for  suggestions  as  to  the  handling  of  this  section. 


74 


The  Greek  Empires 


(2)  The 
Middle  Age. 


Adjustment 
and  Expan- 


2.  First 
Attempts 


3.  Empires 


This  process  of  inner  development  went  on  for  three  centuries. 
The  period  may  be  called  the  Middle  Age  (1000-700  B.C.),  since  it 
jjeg  Detween  the  earlier  and  the  later  bloom  of  Greek  life.  By  the 
seventh  century  the  results  of  the  changes  wrought  began  clearly 
to  appear;  commerce  revived;  city-states  came  forward,  ruled  over 
by  aristocracies;  struggles  for  the  political  rights  of  citizens  followed. 
The  outcome  was  the  general  predominance  of  popular  government 
at  home  and  the  extension  of  Greek  life  and  influence  abroad  over 
the  .•Egean  sea  and  beyond.  Thus  Greece  was  brought  into  contact 
wjth  the  eastern  world  again  and,  as  never  before,  became  a  factor 
in  world  politics.  This  period  of  two  centuries  may  be  called  the 
Age  of  Political  Adjustment  and  Outward  Expansion  (700-5003.0.). 

But  contact  with  the  eastern  world  soon  came  to  be,  in  particular, 
a  conflict  with  the  Persian  Empire—  a  conflict  that,  with  intervals  of 
peace,  lasted  for  nearly  two  centuries  (500-331  B.C.).  To  meet 
Persian  attack,  the  separate  Greek  states  united  under  the  leadership 
of  certain  cities.  These  cities,  taking  advantage  of  the  opportunity, 
sought  to  turn  their  leadership  into  imperial  rule.  First  came  the 
Empjre  of  Athens  over  the  states  on  the  yEgean.  After  a  period  of 
splendor  it  fell,  in  404  B.C.  Sparta  followed  the  example  of  Athens 
and  was  herself  imitated  by  Thebes,  but  these  projects  of  empire 
lasted  but  a  brief  time  (to  365  B.C.).  Meanwhile  the  Greek  world  of 
the  far  west  was  united  under  the  rule  of  the  city  of  Syracuse  in  an 
empire  which  flourished  for  a  season.  Finally,  Macedonia,  once 
hardly  recognized  as  a  part  of  Greece,  gained,  under  King  Philip, 
control  over  the  Greek  states. 

His  son  Alexander  led  the  Greeks  out  against  Persia  in  a  final 
struggle  which  ended  in  the  overthrow  of  Persia  (331  B.C.).  He 
established  in  its  stead  an  Empire,  embracing  both  Greece  and 
Persia,  the  worthiest  as  well  as  the  largest  imperial  state  thus  far 
appearing  in  history,  Alexander's  Empire  endured  only  during  his 
lifetime  ^33T~323  B-c-)-  After  his  death  it  was  divided  among  his 
generals,  who  finally  set  up  three  Empires  on  its  ruins  —  the  Mace^ 
donian,  ruling  over  Macedonia  and  the  Greek  states;  the  Syrian, 
ruling  from  Antioch  over  Syria  and  the  East;  the  Egyptian,  ruling 
over  Egypt  and  part  of  Palestine.  These  Empires  had  endured 
scarcely  a  century  when,  from  Italy,  a  new  power,  Rome,  appeared 
on  the  scene,  While  the  three  Empires  were  steadily  declining, 


Epochs  of  Greek  History  75 

Rome  had  been  rising.  She  had  slowly  become  entangled  in  the 
affairs  of  the  east.  Soon  she  took  a  leading  part  in  them.  Thus 
the  centre  of  power  moved  toward  Italy.  The  history  of  the  Greek 
world  was  merged  into  that  of  Rome  (200  B.C.). 

98.  Thus  we  have  the  following  main  divisions  of  this  The 
portion  of  our  history:  S^ 

II.  THE  GREEK  EMPIRES:  TO  200  B.C. 

1.  The  Beginnings  of  Greece  and  its  Expansion  in  East 

and  West:  to  500  B.C. 

(1)  The  Mycenaean  Age:  to  1000  B.C. 

(2)  The  Middle  Age:  1000-700  B.C. 

(3)  The  Age  of  Political  Adjustment  and  Out- 

ward Expansion:  700-500  B.C. 

2.  The  First  Attempts  at-  Empire — Athenian,   Spartan, 

Theban  and  Macedonian:  500-331  B.C. 

3.  The  Empires  of  Alexander  and  his  Successors,  to  the 

Appearance  of  Rome  in  the  East:  331-200  B.C. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  GREEK   HISTORY* 

PLUTARCH.  Translation  by  Dryden,  edited  by  Clough.  5  vols.  Little, 
Brown  and  Co.;  or  by  Stewart  and  Long.  4  vols.  Bohn. 

BURY.  History  o)  Greece.  Macmillan  Co.  The  best  single  volume, 
combining  a  detailed  treatment  with  accurate  and  up-to-date  knowl- 
edge. Possibly  too  full  for  elementary  use. 

SHUCKBURGH.  History  of  the  Greeks.  Macmillan  Co.  Conventional 
in  arrangement  but  clearly  and  concisely  written. 

MOREY.  Outlines  of  Greek  History.  American  Book  Co.  A  little 
fragmentary,  dealing  in  detail  with  the  growth  of  civilization,  rather 
than  with  outward  history. 

*  For  previous  bibliographies  see  pp.  4,   10.       For  bibliography  for 
advanced  students  and  teachers,  see  Appendix  I. 


76  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

BOTSFORD.  A  History  of  Greece.  Macmillan  Co.  A  well-proportioned 
narrative  in  moderate  compass.  Rather  radical  at  times. 

ZIMMERN.  Greek  History.  Longmans.  Emphasizes  the  picturesque 
sides  of  Greek  History;  written  in  a  simple  style  for  elementary 
students. 

ABBOTT.  A  Skeleton  Outline  of  Greek  History.  Macmillan  Co.  Useful 
primarily  for  chronology. 

MAHAFFY.  The  Story  of  Alexander's  Empire.  Putnams.  The  one  book 
on  this  particular  field. 

JEBB.  Greek  Literature  (History  Primer  Series).  American  Book  Co. 
Brief,  but  judicious,  compact  and  illuminating. 

CAPPS.  From  Homer  to  Theocritus.  Scribners.  The  most  useful  single 
book ;  contains  abundant  extracts. 

MURRAY.  Ancient  Greek  Literature.  Appleton.  Keen,  brilliant,  fasci- 
nating, but  takes  for  granted  a  general  knowledge  of  Greek  life  and 
history. 

MAHAFFY.  Old  Greek  Life.  American  Book  Co.  A  convenient  primer 
of  antiquities. 

FOWLER.  The  City -State  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Macmillan  Co. 
Belongs  to  the  field  of  political  science  rather  than  of  history.  In- 
terprets as  no  other  book  of  its  size  the  meaning  of  ancient  political 
institutions. 

GREENIDGE.  A  Handbook  of  Greek  Constitutional  History.  Macmillan 
Co.  The  only  book  of  moderate  size  covering  the  whole  field. 

TARBELL.  A  History  of  Greek  Art.  Chautauqua  Press.  The  best 
single  book  on  the  subject. 


1.— THE    BEGINNINGS    OF  GREECE   AND  ITS 
EXPANSION   IN    EAST   AND    WEST 

TO  500  B.C. 

General  99.  The  part  taken  by  Greece  in  the  history  of  the 

of  the         Ancient  World  does  not  become  important  until  some- 
Period,        thing  like  two  thousand  years  of  its  life  have  passed  away. 
Of  this  long  stretch  of  time  we  have  comparatively  little 
knowledge.     In  the  early  part  of  it  only  a  gleam  of  light 


The  Earliest  Age  77 

here  and  there  appears;  even  the  last  two  centuries  of  it 
(700-500  B.C.)  are  quite  imperfectly  known.  It  was  a  time 
of  beginnings,  of  formation,  during  which  the  Greek  peo- 
ple were  working  out  those  ideals  of  social  and  political 
life  which  make  their  history  so  unique  and  instructive, 
and  by  which  they  were  prepared  to  enter  into  the  larger 
world  and  do  their  work  in  the  upbuilding  of  mankind. 

100.  One  of  the  turning-points  in  this  period  of  begin-  (i)  The 
nings  comes  about  the  year  1000  B.C.  Before  that  time  Age.61"* 
Greece  must  have  had  a  wonderful  history,  but  we  can 
understand  only  a  little  of  it,  since  no  written  records  of  it 
have  been  preserved.  In  this  far-off  time  the  later  Greeks 
laid  the  scenes  of  many  of  their  beautiful  poems  and  tales 
of  gods  and  heroes,  but  they  themselves  had  no  certain 
knowledge  of  what  really  occurred  there.  So  long  as  we 
had  only  these  wonderful  stories  to  depend  on,  we  called 
these  ages  the  "Heroic  Period"  or  the  "Age  of  Fable"  or 
of  "  Myth" — which  was  as  much  as  to  say  that  nothing 
really  historical  could  be  found  out  about  them.  But, 
recently,  some  extraordinary  remains  of  the  civilization  of 
these  times  have  been  discovered  by  diggings  in  various 
localities  of  the  Greek  world.  From  these  remains  some- 
thing certain  about  that  ancient  life  can  be  known.  The 
most  important  of  these  discoveries  were  made  at  Mycenae, 
at  Troy  and  in  Crete.  Other  similar  "finds"  were  un- 
earthed at  the  heads  of  the  bays  along  the  eastern  shore 
of  Greece  and  upon  islands  of  the  ^gean.  The  promi- 
nence and  significance  of  the  discoveries  at  Mycenae  led 
scholars  to  call  the  age  in  which  this  civilization  flour- 
ished the  Mycenaean  Age.  The  date  of  its  highest  bloom 
was  about  1500  B.C.  We  shall  describe  briefly  some  of  its 
characteristics. 


78  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

The  My-  ioi.  Political  life  was  already  well  advanced.  People 
Re^iL  ^VG<^  m  cities.  In  the  centre  of  the  city  was  a  castle,  built 
and  Their  high  with  strong  defences;  within  it  a  palace,  large  and 
beautiful,  with  many  courts  and  chambers.  Near  the  cas- 
tle was  the  lofty  royal  tomb  in  the  shape  of  a  beehive,  sunk 
into  a  side  hill  and  richly  adorned.  The  graves  of  the  kings 
contained  a  profusion  of  treasure  in  gold  and  silver  finely 
wrought  into  useful  and  ornamental  objects.  Such  kings 
must  have  been  powerful  and  rich;  they  ruled  over  wide 
territories  and  entered  into  relations  with  peoples  round 
about.  The  objects  found  in  the  diggings  illustrate  the 
art  of  the  time.  There  were  masks  of  gold,  cups  of  gold 
and  silver,  armlets,  bracelets,  beads,  chains,  diadems, 
earrings,  necklaces,  rings  and  vases — all  of  gold.  There 
were  bronze  swords  with  inlaid  work.  There  was  glazed 
and  painted  pottery  of  various  and  striking  patterns,  deco- 
rated with  scenes  from  land  and  sea.  There  were  vases 
of  alabaster,  of  marble  and  of  terra-cotta.  The  working 
of  scenes  in  low  relief  upon  the  gold  cups,*  the  artistic 
coloring  and  designs  upon  the  jars  and  vases,  the  mosaic 
patterns  upon  the  walls,  and  the  engraving  upon  the  gems 
are  proofs  of  a  remarkable  skill  on  the  part  of  the  work- 
men. The  Mycenaean  artist  employed  nearly  every 
process  known  to  modern  art.  One  art,  it  seems,  was 
not  advanced,  that  of  the  sculptor.  Only  one  work  in 
stone  deserves  mention — the  lions  above  the  entrance 
to  the  palace  of  Mycenae. 

The  com-         102.  Everything  points  to  a  widely  extended  commercial 

Life"*1  the    activity  in  the  Mycenaean  Age.     The  fact  that  the  objects 

A*e-  just  described  are  found  on  both  sides  of  the  JEge&n  sea  and 

on  the  islands  indicates  that  intercourse  by  sea  had  brought 

*  See  Plate  VI. 


The  Mycencean  World  79 

these  peoples  together.  So  wide  was  this  intercourse  that 
we  might  almost  speak  of  a  Mycenaean  World.  On  the 
one  side  as  far  as  Cyprus,  on  the  other  side  in  west  Greece 
and  even  in  Italy,  are  the  products  of  this  Mycenaean 
civilization  found.  The  heart  of  it  all  seems  to  have  been 
in  the  island  of  Crete  at  the  city  of  Cnossos,  whose  fleets 
may  be  said  to  have  controlled  the  trade  of  the  yEgean 
and  the  eastern  Mediterranean  seas,  before  the  Phoeni- 
cians had  begun  their  sailing  expeditions  (§  56).  Com- 
mercial relations  were  also  enjoyed  with  lands  outside  of 
the  Mycenaean  world.  The  amber  beads  found  at  My- 
cenae may  have  come  from  the  Baltic  sea;  the  jade  axes 
from  China.  The  patterns  and  decorations  upon  pottery 
and  palaces,  upon  swords  and  images,  show  the  influence 
of  the  art  of  the  Hittites  (§  9)  and  of  the  Egyptians;  they 
testify  to  intercourse  with  these  peoples.  In  Egypt  itself 
Mycenaean  pottery  has  been  found;  soldiers  in  Mycenaean 
armor  are  pictured  on  the  walls  of  Egyptian  temples  of 
the  time  of  the  nineteenth  and  twentieth  dynasties  (§44). 
Evidently  Cretan  ships  sailed  to  Egypt  with  their  wares,  Mycen 
and  their  men  served  in  Egyptian  armies.  We  have  Wars- 
already  seen  that,  in  this  very  age,  a  great  migration  of 
peoples  from  the  borders  of  the  Mycenaean  world  wrought 
havoc  in  the  political  world  of  western  Asia  (§§  44,  51). 
How  natural  that  these  Mycenaean  kings  should  fight 
with  one  another  for  wider  empire!  One  of  these  wars, 
that  of  Mycenae  against  Troy,  was  in  the  following  period 
made  the  subject  of  many  a  heroic  lay  and  forms  the 
theme  of  the  "Iliad"  of  Homer.  Likewise,  a  picture  of 
the  wide  Mycenaean  sea- world,  its  interests,  its  perils  and 
its  powers,  lies  before  us  in  Homer's  "  Odyssey."  These 
poems,  as  we  shall  see,  belong  to  the  age  that  follows,  but 


80  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

they  gather  up  the  recollections  and  traditions  of  these 
splendid  centuries.  The  Mycenaean  age  itself  has  left 
no  literature.  Its  thoughts,  so  far  as  they  are  known, 
speak  to  us  in  the  material  objects  dug  up  from  its  palaces 
and  tombs. 

the  Dorian  IO^.  TO  what  splendid  heights  the  Mycenaean  world 
might  have  reached  no  one  can  tell;  upon  the  heart  of  it 
about  1000  B.C.  fell  a  deadly  blow.  Up  in  the  northwest 
corner  of  Greece  some  sort  of  a  commotion  took  place 
among  the  rude  peoples  there,  which  set  them  moving 
toward  the  east  and  south.  Their  advance  was  irresistible. 
It  resulted  in  the  complete  overthrow  of  the  ruling  powers 
in  the  Mycenaean  strongholds  and  a  transformation  in  all 
spheres  of  Greek  life.  Chief  among  these  invading  tribes 
were  the  Dorians,  and  their  leaders  were  at  the  head  of 
affairs  in  the  centuries  that  followed.  The  seat  of  their 
power  was  the  Peloponnesus,  which  henceforth  became 
End  of  the  for  a  long  time  the  centre  of  Greece.  Similar  migrations 
Mycenaean  an(j  ghjftjjjgg  of  population  in  the  following  centuries 
threw  the  rest  of  the  eastern  communities  of  Greece  into 
confusion.  The  Mycenaean  world  of  Asia  Minor  and  the 
islands  was  also  disturbed,  though,  of  course,  not  in  a  like 
degree.  Many  fled  thither  from  before  the  intruders. 
In  course  of  time  the  Dorians  themselves  settled  upon  the 
southern  islands  and  the  lower  coasts  of  Asia  Minor. 
The  unity  of  the  Mycenaean  world  was  destroyed. 

OUTLINE    FOR   REVIEW 

II.  THE    GREEK    EMPIRES 

Preliminary  Survey:  Physical  Geography  of  Greece — its  influence  (i)  on 
the  history  both  external  and  internal,  (2)  on  Greek  character — the 
Greek  people — course  of  their  history — its  grand  divisions. 


The  Greek  Middle  Age  81 

i.  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE  AND  ITS  EXPANSION.  Our  knowledge 
of  the  earliest  period  and  its  sources — the  Mycenaean  Age — the 
remains  and  their  story — Mycenaean  commerce,  its  extent  and 
character — wars  and  their  memorials — how  the  age  came  to  an 
end  and  when. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  I.  What  part  do  the  following  play  in 
the  physical  geography  of  Greece:  the  ./Egean,  the  Pindus,  the 
gulf  of  Corinth  ?  2.  For  what  are  the  following  places  noted: 
Mycenae,  Troy,  Cnossos?  3.  Locate  from  memory  on  an  out- 
line map  the  chief  points  at  which  remains  of  Mycenaean 
civilization  have  been  found.  4.  At  about  what  time  was  the 
Mycenaean  civilization  at  its  height?  5.  At  about  what  time 
did  the  Dorian  invasions  occur? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  What  was  going  on  in  the  Ori- 
ental world  between  the  above  dates?  2.  Compare  the  arti- 
cles of  commerce  of  the  Mycenaean  Greeks  with  those  of  the 
Phoenicians  (§  56).  S.'tompare  the  effect  of  the  Dorian  inva- 
sion of  Greece  with  that  of  the  Hyksos  invasion  of  Egypt 
(§§40-41).  4.  What  great  difference  do  you  notice  between 
the  principles  of  government  of  the  early  Greeks  and  those  of 
the  Semitic  countries  (§91)? 

TOPICS     FOR     READING     AND     ORAL     REPORT.     1.  The 

Story  of  Theseus.  Plutarch,  Life  of  Theseus.  2.  Phoenician 
Influence  on  Greece.  Bury,  pp.  76-77.  3.  The  Geography 
of  Greece.  Bury,  pp.  1-5;  Morey,  pp.  72-77.  4.  The  Myce- 
naean Age:  (a)  Its  Remains,  Bury,  pp.  11-30;  Morey,  pp. 
86-91.  (b)  Its  History  in  Greece,  Bury,  pp.  31-43;  Morey, 
pp.  91-94.  (c)  Its  Expansion,  Bury,  pp.  43-53;  Botsford, 
pp.  8-10.  5.  The  Earliest  History  of  Greece.  Bury,  pp.  6-n. 
6.  Myths  and  Legends  of  the  Heroic  Age.  Morey,  pp.  83-86; 
Botsford,  Ancient  History,  pp.  49-61.  7.  The  Epic  Poets.  Bots- 
ford, Greece,  pp.  10-11;  Morey,  pp.  94-96;  Capps,  pp.  14-20. 

104.  In  the  new  Greece  that  now  came  into  being,  civili-  (a)  The 

zation  must  in  a  sense  begin  all  over  again.    The  incomers  ^ dle 
were  numerous ;  the  old  civilization  was  too  weak  to  absorb 

and  win  its  peaceful  victory  over  them,  as  was  the  case  in  its  New 

so  many  similar  situations  in  the  ancient  East  (§§  38, 41).  Beginmne- 


82  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

occupa-  They  came  with  their  flocks  and  herds  and  for  a  time  con- 
tions'  tinued  the  old  pastoral  life.  Apart  from  the  raising  and 
pasturing  of  their  cattle,  hunting  and  fighting  were  their 
favorite  activities.  But  as  they  settled  down,  agriculture 
was  taken  up;  fields  were  sown;  vineyards  planted;  the 
fig  and  the  olive  cultivated.  In  time  industries  came  in. 
At  first,  everything  needed  was  made  at  home,  but  gradu- 
ally the  various  trades  appeared,  the  blacksmith,  the  potter, 
the  carpenter,  the  leatherworker,  the  bowmaker  and  the 
spinner.  For  a  long  time  any  kind  of  industry  was  looked 
upon  as  unworthy  of  freemen.  Even  heralds,  physicians, 
seers,  singers,  poets  and  jugglers  were  together  counted  as 
workmen  and,  though  respected,  had  no  social  standing. 
First  the  warrior,  and  then  the  farmer,  were  the  gentlemen 
of  Greece. 

social  and  105.  The  new-comers  brought  the  tribal  system  with 
Elements.  tnem  mto  the  Peloponnesus.  In  the  tribe  the  members 
are  bound  together  by  a  tie  of  blood-relationship.  Each 
is  the  equal  of  his  brother.  The  duties  and  privileges  of 
each  begin  and  end  with  his  life  in  the  tribe.  He  eats  at 
the  common  table.  He  must  be  ever  ready  in  arms  at  the 
call  of  the  tribe  to  battle.  If  slain  by  an  enemy,  it  rests 
upon  his  fellow-tnbesmen  to  avenge  him  by  killing  any 
and  all  of  the  hostile  tribe  whose  member  took  his  life.* 
All  property  is  held  in  common  and  is  from  time  to  time 
assigned  by  lot  to  the  various  families  of  the  tribe.  All 
religion  is  summed  up  in  the  worship  of  the  tribal  god, 
who  leads,  protects,  prospers  and  aids  the  tribe  in  all  its 
ways.  At  the  head  of  the  tribe  is  the  King,  the  chief 
among  equals,  surrounded  by  his  council,  the  Elders,  men 
of  valor  over  sixty  years  old.  He  leads  the  tribe  in  war; 

*  This  is  called  the  law  of  blood-revenge. 


The  Aristocratic  State  83 

he  is  the  Judge  and  the  Priest  in  peace.  The  tribesmen, 
gathered  in  close  array,  armed  for  war,  constitute  the 
Public  Assembly  for  the  settlement  of  tribal  affairs. 

106.  When  these  wandering  tribes  settled  down  in  the  Rise  of 
narrow  valleys  of  Greece,  tribal  unity  was  broken  up.  ^™stoc" 
Each  petty  community  began  to  live  for  itself.     The  land 
ceased  to  be  held  in  common  and  each  family  to  which  a 
"lot"  was  assigned  came  to  own  it  and,  where  possible, 
added  more.     Some  families  grew  great  and  strong  and 
began  to  claim  superiority  thereby.     Other  families  grew 

poor  and  became  dependent  upon  their  richer  neighbors. 
The  strong  became  proud  and  called  themselves  Aristoi, 
"the  best"  people.  Thus  an  "Aristocracy"  grew  up  with 
its  dependents.  The  noble  head  of  an  aristocratic  family 
led  his  people  in  war  and  protected  them  in  peace.  He 
lived  on  his  estates  in  rude  luxury,  surrounded  by  his  family 
and  dependents.  The  king  soon  began  to  find  that  this 
aristocracy  was  too  strong  for  him;  in  time  he  lost  his 
powers,  one  after  the  other,  keeping  at  last  only  his  relig- 
ious functions.  The  aristocracy  stepped  into  his  place 
and  ruled  the  state  by  a  Council  of  chiefs,  administering 
justice  and  making  war.  In  this  new  situation  the  old 
tribal  equality  faded  away.  The  Public  Assembly,  though 
still  existent,  had  no  power  in  the  new  Aristocratic  State. 
The  nobles  were  the  state. 

107.  In  one  district  of  the  Peloponnesus  the  aristocracy  Sparta  the 
did  not  get  the  upper  hand.     In  the  valley  of  the  Euro-  Exceptlon' 
tas  a  tribe  settled  which  preserved  the  old  system.     The 
tribesmen  all  dwelt  together  in  the  city  which  we  know  as 
Sparta.     There  they  were  ruled  over  by  two  kings ;  there 

they  preserved  their  Assembly;  there  they  ate  their  meals 
in  common  and  held  their  land  as  the  property  of  the  state, 


84  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

to  be  allotted  to  the  tribesmen  at  regular  intervals.  Rude 
and  sturdy  men,  they  kept  their  arms  in  their  hands  and 
were  ever  ready  to  use  them  for  defence  and  conquest. 
The  same  tribal  system  was  also  maintained  in  Crete. 

The  city-  io8.  The  usual  and  characteristic  form  taken  by  these 
states  was  the  City,  just  as  in  the  primitive  East  (§  13). 
The  Greek  city  came  into  existence  by  a  union  of  the  petty 
villages  of  a  district.  The  inhabitants  merged  their  local 
rights  into  one  common  body  at  a  convenient  spot.  The 
political  powers  of  the  several  communities  were  given  to 
the  new  state.  There  the  officials  lived  and  administered 
justice;  there  the  public  assembly  met;  there  the  citizen 
exercised  his  rights.  There  was  the  centre  of  political 
life.  There  was  set  up  the  worship  of  the  common  god. 

its  Unique-  Thus  a  fundamental  difference  appears  between  the  East- 
ern and  the  Greek  city-state.  In  the  former  all  power 
was  lodged  in  a  king,  and  his  people  were  subject  to  him 
and  dependent  upon  him  for  all  things  (§  21).  But  in  the 
Greek  city-state  there  was  always  a  measure  of  popular 
freedom;  to  be  a  citizen  was  to  have  some  political  rights 
and  duties.  The  king  was  never  a  despot,  nor  did  the 
rule  of  the  aristocracy  destroy  the  old  rights  of  the  freeman, 
although  it  often  limited  his  exercise  of  them.  But  they 
were  always  capable  of  being  revived  and  enlarged  should 
the  proper  occasion  offer  itself.  The  Greek  city  was  also 
economically  independent.  The  citizens  produced  their 
own  wealth  and  employed  it  for  the  city's  interest,  not  for 
those  of  a  king  and  his  court. 

Thucydides,  the  Athenian  historian,  gives  the  following  ac- 
count of  the  origin  of  the  city-state  of  Athens: 

"In  the  days  of  Cecrops  and  the  first  kings,  down  to  the  reign  of 
Theseus,  Athens  was  divided  into  communes,  having  their  own 


The  Greek  City-State  85 

town -halls  and  magistrates.  Except  in  case  of  alarm  the  whole  peo- 
ple did  not  assemble  in  council  under  the  king,  but  administered 
their  own  affairs,  and  advised  together  in  their  several  townships. 
Some  of  them  at  times  even  went  to  war  with  him,  as  the  Eleusini- 
ans  under  Eumolpus  with  Erechtheus.  But  when  Theseus  came 
to  the  throne,  he,  being  a  powerful  as  well  as  a  wise  ruler, 
among  other  improvements  in  the  administration  of  the  country, 
dissolved  the  councils  and  separate  governments,  and  united  all  the 
inhabitants  of  Attica  in  the  present  city,  establishing  one  council  and 
town-hall.  They  continued  to  live  on  their  own  lands,  but  he  com- 
pelled them  to  resort  to  Athens  as  their  metropolis,  and  henceforward 
they  were  all  inscribed  on  the  roll  of  her  citizens.  A  great  city  thus 
arose  which  was  handed  down  by  Theseus  to  his  descendants,  and 
from  his  day  to  this  the  Athenians  have  regularly  celebrated  the 
national  festival  of  the  Synoikia,  or  union  of  the  communes,  in 
honor  of  the  goddess  Athene." 


109.  The  history  of  the  Greek  world  is  henceforth  and  A  New 

Impulsi 
Commerce. 


chiefly  the  history  of  these  city-states  in  their  growth  and  Impuls' 


relations  to  one  another.  The  first  to  become  prominent 
were  those  on  the  other  side  of  the  y£gean  sea.  They  had 
been  the  least  disturbed  by  the  migrations;  indeed,  by  the 
advent  of  those  who  fled  out  of  Greece  from  before  the  new- 
comers they  had  been  distinctly  benefited.  An  activity, 
new  for  this  age,  began  to  be  cultivated  among  them — 
commerce.  It  made  them  vigorous,  enterprising  and  The  East- 
wealthy.  Miletus  was  the  leader,  followed  by  its  rivals,  ern  Clties' 
Ephesus,  Colophon,  Magnesia,  Samos,  Chios  and  Mytilene. 
Soon  the  impulse  spread  to  the  western  side  of  the  sea 
and  commercial  cities  appeared  there — Chalcis  and  Eretria 
upon  the  island  of  Eubcea,  as  well  as  Megara,  Corinth 
and  ^Egina.  A  lively  trade  sprang  up  between  these 
cities  and  gave  a  great  stimulus  to  manufacturing.  Some 
cities  had  natural  products  to  exchange,  as  Corinth  its 
special  variety  of  grapes,  by  which  the  name  of  the  city 


86  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

has  been  preserved  to  this  day  in  the  word  currants,  or 
Cyprus,  its  copper  (Greek  kupros),  so  called  for  its  abun- 
dance in  that  island.  But  usually  some  manufactured 
article  was  exported.  Thus  Miletus  was  famous  for  its 
woollen  garments,  Eubcea  for  its  purple  cloths,  Chalcis 
and  Corinth  for  pottery,  other  cities  for  metal-work  and 
chariots. 

Beginnings  no.  But  here  as  elsewhere  (§  59)  commerce  was  help- 
ful for  higher  things  than  material  progress.  The  nobles 
and  the  wealthy  sought  entertainment  for  their  leisure  and 
found  it  in  music  and  song.  In  these  cities  appeared  a 
class  of  singers  who,  accompanying  their  song  with  the 
lyre,  produced  the  first  literature  of  Greece.  They  sang 
of  gods  and  heroes,  of  battles,  sieges,  and  adventures  by 
land  and  sea,  of  the  loves  and  hates,  the  sins  and  virtues 
of  men  and  gods,  of  the  worlds  above  and  below  this  earth 
and  of  all  the  splendid  life  of  the  mighty  of  old.  They 
laid  under  contribution  all  of  religion  and  history  that  had 
come  down  to  them  from  the  dim  past. 

Such  was  the  singer  described  in  the  "Odyssey":  "Then  the 
henchman  drew  near,  leading  with  him  the  beloved  minstrel,  whom 
the  Muse  loved  dearly,  and  she  gave  him  both  good  and  evil;  of  his 
sight  she  reft  him,  bu  granted  him  sweet  song.  Then  Pontonous,  the 
henchman,  set  for  him  a  high  chair  inlaid  with  silver,  in  the  midst  of 
the  guests,  leaning  it  against  the  tall  pillar,  and  he  hung  the  loud  lyre 
on  a  pin,  close  above  his  head,  and  showed  him  how  to  lay  his  hands 
on  it.  The  Muse  stirred  the  minstrel  to  sing  the  songs  of  famous 
men,  even  that  lay  whereof  the  fame  had  then  reached  the  wide 
heaven,  namely,  the  quarrel  between  Odysseus  and  Achilles,  son  of 
Peleus;  how  once  on  a  time  they  contended  in  fierce  words  at  a  rich 
festival  of  the  gods,  but  Agamemnon,  king  of  men,  was  inly  glad 
when  the  noblest  of  the  Achaeans  fell  at  variance.  This  song  it  was 
that  the  famous  minstrel  sang." 


The  Epic  Poetry  87 

111.  In  time  these  songs  came  to  be  woven  together  The  Epics, 
into  a  series  of  greater  poems,  in  hexameter  verse,  dealing 

with  particular  events,  like  the  story  of  the  ship  "Argo" 
and  its  crew  of  bold  heroes  led  by  Jason,  or  that  of  the 
"Seven  against  Thebes,"  or  that  of  the  "Siege  of  Troy" 
and  the  "Wanderings  of  Odysseus."  These  are  called 
Epics,  and  the  most  famous  of  them  are  said  to  have  been 
the  work  of  Homer  and  are  known  to  us  as  the  "Iliad"  and 
the  "Odyssey."  For  centuries  these  cycles  of  song  passed 
down  from  singer  to  singer  unwritten,  until  finally,  when 
the  age  of  the  singers  was  passing,  they  were  written  down. 

112.  From  these  Epics  comes  a  vivid  picture  of  the  life  illustrate 
of  the  times,  nowhere  more  strikingly  exhibited  than  in  Jj|°  i^e°f 
the  description  of  the  scenes  on  the  shield  of  Achilles  in 

the  eighteenth  book  of  the  "Iliad"  (lines  483-606).  There 
appears  city-life,  the  marriages  and  the  leading  of  the 
brides  through  the  city  with  songs,  the  public  assembly 
where  the  judges  give  justice  between  the  slayer  and  the 
slain,  the  siege  and  battle,  fell  Death  in  the  midst,  her 
raiment  red  with  the  blood  of  men,  the  field  ploughed  with 
oxen,  the  sweet  wine  given  to  the  laborer,  the  binding  of 
the  sheaves  at  harvest,  the  vineyard  with  its  black  and 
luscious  grapes  and  the  gatherers  listening  to  the  "Linos" 
song,  the  cattle  in  the  pasture  attacked  by  lions,  the  sheep 
and  the  sheepfolds,  the  dance,  the  maidens  clad  in  fine 
linen  with  wreaths  on  their  heads,  and  the  youth  in  well- 
woven  doublets  with  golden  daggers  in  silver  sheaths,  the 
great  company  standing  round  the  lovely  dance  in  joy. 

113.  Religion,  too,  finds  its  first  expression  in  these  and  the 
poems.     The  Greek,  like  the  Oriental  (§  34),  thought  of  ReUgion- 
the  world  as  peopled  by  divine  powers  that  influenced 
human  life.     Every  spring,  every  forest,  every  height,  the 


88  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

wind  and  the  storm,  the  lights  flaming  in  the  sky,  the  deep 
and  rotting  sea  and  the  bright  heaven  revealed  the  presence 
and  activity  of  the  gods.  With  his  lively  imagination  the 
Greek  was  not  satisfied  until  he  had  formed  clear-cut  and 

its  Human    vivid  ideas  of  these  powers.    Above  all,  he  thought  of  them 

Element.  ^  looking  and  acting  like  himself,  only  on  a  grander  scale. 
The  best  that  he  could  desire  himself  to  be,  that  he  imag- 
ined the  gods  were.  When  the  singers  sang  of  the  gods, 
they  pictured  them  as  glorified  and  beautiful  human  beings. 
Thereby  they  gave  to  Greek  religion  its  most  characteristic 
stamp;  they  made  it  a  religion  of  heavenly  harmony  and 
supreme  human  beauty.  Another  thing  they  did.  They 
organized  this  vast  and  confused  variety  of  gods.  They 
sang  of  the  family  of  the  great  gods,  twelve  or  more  in 
number,  dwelling  in  the  far  north  on  Mt.  Olympus,  from 
whose  snow-crowned  summit  they  directed  the  universe. 

The  Zeus,  the  mighty  father,  was  the  ruler  of  gods  and  men. 

Go^mpian  ^s  w^e  was  Hera;  his  brothers,  Poseidon,  whose  do- 
main was  the  sea,  and  Pluto,  lord  of  the  underworld  and 
the  dead;  his  children,  Apollo,  god  of  light,  Athene, 
goddess  of  wisdom,  Aphrodite,  goddess  of  love,  Ares, 
god  of  war,  Artemis,  goddess  of  the  forest  and  the  hunt, 
Hermes,  the  divine  messenger,  and  Hephaestus,  the  lame, 
god  of  fire  and  the  forge;  and  other  notable  figures,  Hera- 
cles, the  hero  of  many  labors,  Eros,  god  of  desire,  Deme- 
ter,  goddess  of  the  earth  and  its  fruits,  her  daughter  Cora 
(or  Persephone),  wife  of  Pluto,  and  Dionysus,  god  of 
the  vine.  The  singers  did  not  much  care  about  the  moral 
character  of  these  divine  beings.  They  are  sometimes 
represented  as  quarrelling,  lying  or  deceiving;  even  worse 
actions  are  told  of  some  of  them.  What  the  poets  saw  in 
them  was  their  human  interest;  with  artistic  sense  they 


Greek  Colonization  89 

made  them  always  beautiful  and  only  sometimes  good.  Yet 
Zeus  was  the  judge  of  human  and  divine  deeds;  Apollo 
punished  wrongdoing  and  was  the  type  of  moral  beauty. 
And  in  those  days  it  was  no  small  boon  to  turn  men's  minds 
away  from  stocks  and  stones,  and  present  for  their  wor- 
ship, instead  of  objects  of  nature,  humanlike  forms, 
gloriously  gracious.  Thus  one  could  approach  and  know 
them  as  those  who,  even  if  higher,  were  yet  like  himself, 
who  enjoyed  what  he  enjoyed  at  its  best,  and  who  bade  him 
imitate  them  in  measure  and  harmony  of  life.  It  is  true 
that  this  religion  was  only  for  the  present  life.  In  the  dim  The  othe 
light  of  existence  beyond  the  grave,  in  the  place  which  Llfe' 
they  called  Hades,  the  Greeks  saw  little  that  was  attrac- 
tive. The  saying  of  Achilles  long  remained  true  of  their 
feeling :  "  Rather  would  I  live  upon  the  earth  as  the  hireling 
of  another,  with  a  landless  man  who  had  no  great  liveli- 
hood, than  bear  sway  among  all  the  dead  that  be  departed." 

114.  Commerce,  as  we  have  seen,  stirred  the  Greeks  Beginnii 
to  new  life  at  home.  But  it  also  stirred  them  to  step  out-  °ization. 
side  their  own  territories.  Men  were  not  satisfied  with 
home  markets;  they  sought  out  foreign  shores  and  un- 
visited  peoples,  to  whom  they  brought  their  wares  for  sale 
or  exchange.  In  this  they  were  like  the  Phoenicians. 
But  in  one  important  respect  they  differed  from  that  east- 
ern people.  Wherever  they  went,  they  settled  permanently. 
The  population  of  Greece  had  been  growing  all  these  cen- 
turies and  were  too  many  for  the  home  land.  The  newly 
opened  regions  offered  to  this  surplus  of  people  the  oppor- 
tunity to  find  new  homes.  Thus,  with  the  more  extensive 
trading  expeditions,  went  hand  in  hand  the  establishment 
of  Greek  colonies,  city-states  which  reproduced  the  home 
life.  All  the  commercial  cities  had  a  part  in  this  coloniz- 


90  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

The  Fields,  ing  activity.  Those  of  the  eastern  ^Egean  sailed  up  into 
the  Hellespont  and  onward,  and  made  the  shores  of  the 
Black  sea  Greek  territory.  Miletus  founded  Cyzicus, 
Sinope,  Trapezus,  Olbia  and  a  host  of  other  colonies 
there.  Byzantium,  afterward  so  famous,  was  Megara's 
colony.  The  northern  ^Egean  was  settled  by  the  found- 
ing of  cities  in  Thrace  and  Macedonia.  In  the  east 
and  south  the  Greeks  pushed  out  into  Cilicia  and  over 
to  Cyrene.  The  Eubceans  and  Corinthians  went  west- 
ward; they  founded  cities  in  Sicily,  the  chief  of  which 
was  Syracuse.  They  reached  the  lower  coasts  of  eastern 
Italy,  where  they  were  followed  by  people  from  the 
Peloponnesus  until  so  completely  was  the  region  occupied 
that  it  was  called  Magna  Graecia,  "Greater  Greece." 
Its  chief  cities  were  Sybaris,  Croton  and  Tarentum. 
Even  on  the  western  coast  of  Italy  Greeks  settled  the  city 
of  Cyme,  on  the  coast  of  Gaul  the  city  of  Massilia,  and 
pressed  still  farther  westward  as  far  as  Spain. 
Beginnings  11$.  In  Sicily  and  Spain  the  Greeks  came  into  sharp 
Rebtfons  competition  with  the  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians 
to  the  (§  rg).  Likewise  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean  commerce 

Orient. 

and  colonial  expansion  soon  brought  them  into  contact 
with  the  Oriental  world.  The  former  lively  intercourse 
(§  102),  broken  off  by  the  Dorian  invasion  for  some  cen- 
turies, was  now  revived.  Particularly  the  native  king- 
doms of  Asia  Minor  cultivated  relations  with  the  new 
Greek  world.  About  700  B.C.  King  Midas  of  Phrygia 
dedicated  to  Apollo  of  Delphi  his  golden  throne  and  Gy- 
Lydia.  ges  of  Lydia  a  number  of  costly  gold  and  silver  vessels. 
Under  the  successors  of  Gyges  the  Lydian  kingdom  may 
almost  be  said  to  have  entered  into  the  circle  of  Greek  life. 
It  began  to  seek  control  over  the  Greek  coast-cities  of 


Relations  to  the  Orient  91 

Asia  Minor;  King  Croesus  was  practically  the  lord  of 
them  all,  and  the  closest  commercial  bonds  united  them. 
Soon  Greek  traders  and  travellers  began  to  go  to  Egypt,  Egypt 
where  King  Amasis  received  them  most  graciously  and 
gave  them  the  city  of  Naucratis  as  their  trading-post. 
He  himself  also  gave  gifts  to  Apollo  of  Delphi.  All  these 
relations  came  to  be  of  the  greatest  moment  to  the  Greeks 
both  in  stimulating  their  own  culture  and  in  bringing  them 
within  the  circle  of  world-politics.  What  this  latter  meant 
to  them  we  shall  see  later. 

OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 
II.   THE  GREEK  EMPIRES 

I.  The  Beginnings  of  Greece  and  its  Expansion,  (i)  The  Mycenaean 
Age.  (2)  THE  MIDDLE  AGE:  Effect  of  Dorian  migration — growth 
of  various  occupations — tribal  organization — rise  of  Aristocracy, 
except  in  Sparta — the  city-state,  its  character — influence  of  com- 
merce on  the  age  (i)  at  home  (wealth  and  industry — literature,  the 
singers  and  epics — characteristics  of  Greek  religion,  its  gods,  the 
future) — (2)  foreign  relations  (colonization,  its  origin  and  extent — 
contact  with  the  Orient — travel  and  intercourse). 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  I.  For  what  are  the  following  places 
noted:  Miletus,  Chalcis,  Delphi?  2.  Who  were  Amasis, 
Croesus,  Gyges?  3.  What  is  meant  by  hexameter,  epic, 
Magna  Grsecia?  4.  Locate  from  memory  on  an  outline  map 
the  chief  centres  of  Greek  colonization. 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  the  Egyptian  idea  of 
the  divine  world  (§  34)  with  that  of  the  Greek.  2.  In  what 
respects  does  the  religion  of  the  Greeks  differ  from  that  of  the 
Hebrews  (§§  61,  91)? 

TOPICS     FOR     READING    AND    ORAL    REPORT.      1.    The 

Story  of  the  Argonauts.  Bury,  pp.  223-231.  2.  The  Migra- 
tions. Bury,  pp.  53-64.  3.  The  Homeric  Question.  Morey, 
pp.  94-97;  Bury,  pp.  65-69;  Capps,  pp.  20-22,  114-118. 
4.  Origin  and  Early  History  of  the  City-State.  Morey,  pp. 


92  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

108-109;  Botsford,  pp.  20-21;  Fowler,  pp.  5-64.  5.  Greek 
Stories  of  Early  Greek  History.  Bury,  pp.  79-84.  6.  The  Life 
and  Institutions  of  the  Middle  Age.  Bury,  pp.  69-75;  Bots- 
ford, pp.  11-17;  Morey,  pp.  98-111;  Fowler,  pp.  64-112. 
7.  Greek  Colonization.  Bury,  pp.  86-106;  Botsford,  pp.  30- 
40.  8.  The  Greek  Colony  of  Cyme.  Bury,  pp.  94~95- 

(3)  The  116.  Thus  through  commerce,  colonization  and  contact 

°f  with  the  larger  life  of  the  old  world  the  Greeks  were  on  the 


Adjustment  threshold  of  a  new  and  stirring  activity.     We  have  seen 

and  Expan- 

sion. in  part  how  these  stimulating  experiences  were  changing 

their  life  at  home.  Now  we  turn  to  trace  them  more  in 
detail.  These  changes  are  seen  (a)  in  the  new  sense  of 
the  oneness  of  the  Greek  world,  (&)  in  the  growth  of  Greek 
civilization,  (c]  in  the  political  upheaval  that  brought  the 
common  people  to  the  front. 

(a)  The  1  17.  The  physical  character  of  Greece  made  the  union 

Greek  °f  of  its  states  mt°  one  political  body  a  difficult  thing.  But 
Unity.  during  these  centuries  of  quiet  organization  there  had 
been  growing  up  a  common  type  of  life  and  a  body  of  ideals 
and  ways  of  looking  at  things  which  went  far  toward  tak- 
ing the  place  of  a  political  unity.  Now,  when  the  Greek 
cities  extended  their  horizon  and  came  into  contact  with 
peoples  outside,  they  woke  up  to  realize  their  oneness, 
their  difference  in  all  these  respects  from  the  others.  They 
began  to  feel  the  value  of  what  they  had  gained  and  to  de- 
velop and  improve  it.  Thus,  what  we  may  call  their  con- 
sciousness of  themselves  appeared.  It  comes  out  in  vari- 
seenin  ous  ways.  A  school  of  writers  flourished,  who  set  about 
Literature.  organjzmg  the  stories  of  the  past  into  definite  and  intelli- 
gible shape.  The  most  remarkable  man  among  them 
was  Hesiod  (about  700  B.C.).  His  two  chief  works  are 
the  Theogony,  in  which  he  traces  the  history  of  Greek  gods 
from  the  beginning,  and  the  Works  and  Days,  in  which  he 


Unity  of  the  Greek  World  93 

tells  men  how  to  get  on  in  the  world.  These  writers  taught 
how  the  first  Greek  was  named  Hellen;  that  he  had  three  A  New 
sons,  ^Eolus,  Donis  and  Ion;  from  these  were  de-  Heiknes 
scended  the  three  grand  divisions  of  the  Greek  race,  the 
^olians,  the  Dorians  and  the  lonians.  The  .^Eolians 
lived  in  the  north;  their  native  seat  was  Thessaly;  from 
there  many  of  them  crossed  the  sea  and  colonized  the 
upper  third  of  Asia  Minor.  The  lonians  inhabited  middle 
Greece,  and  from  Attica  they  passed  over  and  occupied 
the  middle  third  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the  ^Egean.  The 
Dorians  held  the  Peloponnesus,  whence  they  went  and 
took  the  rest  of  the  Asia  Minor  border.  Thus  all  were 
of  one  blood;  over  against  the  rest  of  the  world  they  knew 
themselves  as  Hellenes.  As  Hellenes  they  spoke  one 
common  language,  divided  into  three  dialects,  correspond- 
ing to  the  three  branches  of  the  race,  ^Eolic,  Ionic,  Doric. 

118.  The  work  of  the  Epic  poets  (§  no)  had  done  much  TheEpks 
to  cement  Hellenic  unity.     The   dialect   in  which    they  Sl^of6 
sang,  the  heroic  figures  and  deeds  they  pictured  and  the  Unity- 
gods  they  celebrated  became  the  common  property  of  the 
Greek  world.     Some  of  the  splendid  divine  beings  of  the 
epics  were  honored  everywhere.     Zeus  and  Apollo  became 
universal  Hellenic  gods.     The  shrine  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  Delphi, 
was  a  kind  of  centre  of  religious  life.     The  noblest  relig- 
ious leadership  of  the  time  was  given  by  his  priests  there; 
it  became  the  custom  to  obtain  from  him  his  sanction  for 
all  enterprises.     At  Delphi  the  god  spoke  through  his 
priestess  in  utterances  called  Oracles.     No  colony  could 
be  sent  out  without  Apollo's  oracle;  kings  from  the  world* 
without  sought  his  wisdom  and  sent  him  rich  gifts  (§  115). 
What  Apollo  did  for  Greek  unity  at  Delphi,  Zeus  in  a  dif- 
ferent way  did  at  Olympia.     There  every  four  years  a  oiympia. 


94 


The  Beginnings  of  Greece 


Amphicty- 
onies. 


(b)  Growth 
of  Civiliza- 
tion. 


festival  in  honor  of  the  god  was  celebrated  from  the  earli- 
est times,  in  connection  with  which  athletic  contests  were 
held.  All  the  Greek  cities  sent  contestants  thither.  The 
list  of  the  victors  was  preserved.  The  tradition  makes 
this  list  date  from  776  B.C.,  which  is  the  first  year  of  the 
First  Olympiad,  or  four  years'  period,  on  which  Greek 
chronology  is  based.  During  the  festival,  literary  works 
by  poets  and  historians  were  read  in  public  and  works  of 
art  exhibited,  for  all  of  which  prizes  were  offered.  Any 
Greek  was  eligible  to  compete.  Though  the  reward  was 
only  a  crown  of  olive  leaves,  the  glory  of  the  victor  was  the 
applause  of  all  Greece.  Religion  also  encouraged  the 
union  of  districts  in  what  was  called  an  Amphictyony. 
Usually  a  sanctuary  was  the  meeting-point  and  the  affairs 
of  the  god  and  his  worshippers  were  the  matters  discussed. 
During  its  sessions  peace  ruled  over  the  whole  territory. 
In  connection  with  these  amphictyonies  appear  the  names 
of  many  states  afterward  famous.  In  middle  Greece  the 
Boeotian  amphictyony  was  formed;  on  the  island  of  Delos 
that  of  the  lonians;  most  famous  of  all  was  that  which 
met  at  Delphi  and  in  which  the  Thessalians  were  the  lead- 
ing spirits.  Of  the  influence  of  this  union  we  learn  from 
the  two  obligations  resting  on  its  members:  no  city  be- 
longing to  it  was  to  be  destroyed,  nor,  in  case  of  siege, 
could  running  water  be  cut  off  from  a  city.  Thus  a  kind 
of  beginning  of  international  law,  applying  in  a  limited 
circle,  was  made. 

119.  The  second  way  in  which  the  new  life  appeared 
was  in  the  progress  of  thought  and  manners — what  we  call 
Civilization.  Two  most  important  things  came  to  Greece 
through  commercial  life — the  use  of  money  and  the  art  of 
writing.  The  old  form  of  exchange  was  by  natural  prod- 


Money  and  the  Art  of  Writing         95 

ucts.  Cattle  were  often  the  standard  of  value,  as  the  Latin 
word  for  money  indicates,  pecunia  (from  pecus,  "cattle"),  use  of 
But  such  means  will  not  do  for  commercial  life.  Metals  Money< 
soon  came  in — at  first  bars  of  copper  or  iron.  Later 
the  precious  metals  were  used,  as  in  the  East  (§  23),  and 
soon  they  were  coined  into  money.  The  Lydians  are  said 
to  have  first  coined  money,  in  the  seventh  century.  The 
state  guaranteed  the  weight  and  fineness  according  to  a 
fixed  scale  and  stamped  the  piece  of  gold  or  silver  with  a 
sign  or  mark  of  genuineness.  From  Lydia  the  custom 
crossed  to  Greece;  in  yEgina,  it  is  said,  the  first  Greek 
coins  were  made.  In  the  case  of  writing  it  seems  that  Art  of 
the  Greek  merchants  also  introduced  that  art  into  Greece.  Wnting< 
They  borrowed  the  alphabet  from  the  Phoenicians  (§  59) 
and  improved  it.  At  first  it  assumed  a  variety  of  forms 
according  to  the  commercial  cities  that  adopted  it.  Finally 
the  Ionic  alphabet  became  the  standard.  In  the  eighth 
century  men  began  to  employ  writing  for  public  purposes — 
for  the  lists  of  officials  and  of  the  Olympian  victors  (§  118). 
A  century  after  it  appears  on  gifts  to  the  gods  and  on 
monuments.  Finally,  toward  the  close  of  the  age  comes 
its  use  in  literature. 

120.  Another  mark  of  the  higher  life  of  the  time  is  seen  interest  in 
in  the  greater  interest  felt  in  the  present,  and  in  the  thoughts  and*  Thet^ 
and  feelings  of  living  men.     Homer  sang  of  the  deeds  D°in8s- 
of  the  heroes  of  old;  he  says  not  a  word  about  his  own 
time.     But  Hesiod,  although  he  laments  the  misery  of  his 
day, calling  the  present  the  "iron  age,"  still  talks  and  re- 
flects upon  it.     And  now  appeared  poets  who,  in  verse 
called  elegiac  or  iambic,  dwelt  upon  events  of  their  own 
day,  expressing  in  satire  their  disgust  at  their  rulers,  calling 
to  a  nobler  life  or  urging  some  political  reform.     Such 


96  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

poets  were  Archilochus  of  Paros  (670  B.C.),  and  The- 
ognis  of  Megara  (540  B.C.).  Others  became  famous  by 
LyricPoets.  their  poetic  expression  of  feeling,  in  lyrical  songs  of  love 
and  marriage,  of  feasting  and  social  joys,  of  war  and  victory 
or  of  praise  to  the  gods.*  Accompanying  this  outburst  of 
reflective  and  passionate  poetry  was  a  development  of  the 
Music.  art  of  music  by  the  discovery  of  the  octave  and  the  lyre  of 
seven  strings  which  opened  up  a  great  variety  of  harmonies. 
All  this  means  that  knowledge  was  broadening,  thought 
was  awakened,  pleasures  were  becoming  finer  and  higher, 
life  was  growing  fuller  and  man  felt  himself  of  more  worth 
in  the  world. 

interest  i2i.  Men  began  also  to  think  more  about  the  world  in 

probLm  which  they  lived — how  it  came  to  be  and  what  kept  it  in 
of  origins,  being.  Religion,  naturally,  was  first  called  on  for  the  an- 
swer to  these  questions,  and  told  how  the  power  and  will 
of  the  gods  made  all  things  to  be.  To  Hesiod  all  begin- 
nings were  divine.  First  came  Chaos  and  Earth  and 
Heaven  and  Night  and  Day,  and  Sea,  and  Time  and 
Love — all  gods.  Earth  was  peopled  with  mighty  destruc- 
tive beings  called  Titans,  against  whom  Zeus  waged  war 
and  won  the  victory,  thus  bringing  order  and  harmony  into 
the  world.  Then  the  gods  created  Man  and  endowed 
cosmog-  him  with  power  to  rule  all  things  on  earth.  The  earth 
was  thought  of  as  a  curved  disk  with  Greece  in  the  middle 
and  Mt.  Olympus,  where  the  gods  dwelt,  in  the  exact  cen- 
tre. It  was  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Mediterranean 
and  all  round  it  flowed  the  Ocean  stream.  The  earth 
was  the  centre  of  the  Universe;  above  it  was  the  ethereal 

*The  most  celebrated  were  Alcaeus  (600  B.C.)  and  Sappho  the 
poetess  (610  B.C.),  both  of  Lesbos,  Anacreon  of  Ionia  (530  B.C.)  and 
Alcman  of  Sparta  (660  B.C.). 


Early  Greek  Thinkers  97 

region  of  Olympus;  beneath  it  was  Hades,  the  under- 
world; at  a  yet  deeper  depth  was  Tartarus,  where  were 
imprisoned  the  wicked  immortals,  chief  among  whom  were 
the  Titans.  The  resemblance  of  this  scheme  to  that  of 
the  Eastern  world  is  obvious  (§  33) ;  it  may  have  been  in 
part  derived  from  that  source. 

122.  But  when  Greeks  began  to  travel,  to  come  into  Dawn  of 
contact  with  strange  countries  and  peoples  outside  of  the 
former  horizon  of  Greek  life,  they  were  not  satisfied  with 

this  purely  religious  explanation.  They  began  to  study 
nature  itself  and  find  the  secrets  of  its  origin  and  life  in 
material  things.  Thus,  in  the  Greek  world  appeared  philos- 
ophers and  scientific  men  who  drank  in  Eastern  wisdom 
and  exercised  their  own  keen  wits  on  the  problems  of  nature. 
Thales  of  Miletus  (600  B.C.)  was  a  student  of  mathematics 
and  physics;  he  calculated  an  eclipse,  measured  the  height 
of  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt  by  their  shadow,  and  knew  the 
lore  of  the  heavens.  He  held  that  everything  in  the  uni- 
verse came  from  Water.  To  Anaximenes  (550  B.C.)  this 
foundation  principle  was  Air.  To  Heraclitus  (500  B.C.) 
it  was  Fire.  These  Ionic  thinkers  found  worthy  com- 
panions in  the  philosophers  of  Greater  Greece,  where 
Pythagoras  (540  B.C.)  sought  the  source  of  all  things  in 
Number,  and  Xenophanes  of  Elea  (575  B.C.)  saw  at 
the  heart  of  the  universe  one  God  directing  all  things  by 
the  might  of  his  reason.  In  all  these,  to  us  crude  ways 
of  thinking,  we  may  see  the  working  of  the  fine  Greek 
intelligence.  These  thinkers  were  not  satisfied  with  ideas 
that  prevailed  only  because  they  were  handed  down  from 
of  old.  They  must  find  for  themselves  what  was  really 
and  finally  true. 

123.  As  these  Greeks  began  to  study  nature,  so  they  also 


98  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

interest  in  came  to  study  man  and  his  duties.  Hesiod  in  his  Works 
LtfeCti°al  and  Days  wrote  on  how  to  be  a  successful  farmer.  Oth- 
ers followed  him  in  this  teaching  of  Wisdom,  of  practical 
life  in  state  and  society.  About  the  year  600  B.C.  in  the 
Greek  world  the  most  distinguished  of  these  teachers  were 
known  as  the  "Seven  Wise  Men."*  Sometimes  they  ex- 
pressed their  thought  in  proverbs  like  "  Nothing  too  much," 
"Unlucky  is  he  who  cannot  bear  ill-luck,"  "Wisdom  is 
the  finest  possession,"  "Know  thyself." 

changes  in        124.  We  may  be  sure  that  religion  also  partook  of  the 
Religion       new  gpjr^  of   ^ne  ^mes>     The  Olympian  gods  became 

Temples.  everywhere  the  guardians  of  state  and  society.  Temples 
began  to  be  built  in  their  honor  and  richly  decorated;  their 
praise  in  song  and  dance  became  more  stately  and  splendid; 
the  sculptures  in  tomb  and  temple  show  increasing  mas- 
tery of  art  in  the  service  of  this  religion  of  divine  life  and 
The  New  beauty.  But  by  the  side  of  this  public  or  official  religion 
FaTth1"  appears  another  which  appealed  to  the  individual  and 
sought  to  meet  his  need  of  divine  favor.  This  faith  cen- 
tres about  deities  who  have  not  been  prominent  in  the 
Olympian  circle — Dionysus  and  Demeter.  To  Dionysus, 
the  god  of  the  vine,  giver  of  joy  and  ecstasy,  and  to  De- 
meter,  the  nourishing  mother-earth,  bestower  of  life  and 
food  to  all,  an  enthusiastic  popular  devotion  was  poured 
out.  One  great  reason  for  their  worship  was  its  outlook  into 
the  life  beyond  the  grave.  The  changes  that  were  coming 
over  the  face  of  the  times  did  not  in  all  respects  bring  hap- 
piness and  peace  to  men;  they  created  problems  the  solu- 
tion of  which  was  uncertain  and  unpromising.  Naturally 

*They  were  Thales  of  Miletus,  Pittacus  of  Mytilene,  Bias  of 
Priene,  Solon  of  Athens,  Cleobulus  of  Lindos,  Cheilon  of  Sparta,  and 
Periander  of  Corinth. 


The  Religion  of  the  Mysteries          99 

men  sought  consolation  in  the  hope  of  the  world  beyond. 
Little  there  was  of  this  in  the  old  faith.  But  the  new  faith 
had  a  new  message  on  this  subject.  To  him  who  with  a 
pure  heart  took  part  in  the  ceremonial  of  worship  of  these 
gods  was  promised  a  brighter  world  beyond,  where  there 
was  freedom  from  care  and  sin.  This  ceremonial  was 
called  the  Mysteries.  What  it  consisted  of  we  do  not  The 
know  exactly,  but  we  do  know  that  those  who  took  part  in  Mystenes- 
it  were  pledged  to  a  life  of  purity  and  enjoyed  the  hope  of 
an  immortal  life.  It  was  an  appeal  to  the  heart,  not  to 
the  head;  it  was  a  religion  for  the  people;  mystical  and 
enthusiastic  as  it  was,  it  became  a  power  for  good  and  a 
spring  of  some  of  the  noblest  forms  of  Greek  life. 

125.  We  have  kept  the  political  changes  of  the  time  to  (C)  Political 
the  last.  They  show  most  simply  and  clearly  the  influence  Changes- 
of  the  new  forces ;  it  was  in  them  and  through  them  that  the 
other  changes  could  come  to  the  surface  and  work  them- 
selves out.  They  form  also  the  connecting  link  between 
this  and  the  following  periods.  We  have  seen  how  every- 
where the  aristocracy  had  gained  possession  of  Greek 
politics  (§  1 06).  In  many  states  they  not  merely  ruled 
the  citizens;  they  were  the  citizens.  But  commerce  had 
made  many  besides  the  aristocracy  wealthy  and  influential. 
It  had  brought  individuals  everywhere,  no  matter  what 
their  station  in  life  was,  to  a  larger  knowledge  of  the  world 
and  their  own  place  in  it  (§  120).  While  some  had  grown 
rich,  others  had  become  poor;  the  farmers  especially 
suffered  from  the  new  markets  opened  by  commerce  and 
the  new  ways  of  doing  business  introduced  thereby.  Thus 
disturbances  and  difficulties  appeared  on  every  hand  in 
Greek  political  life.  The  aristocracy,  feeling  its  power 
threatened,  did  as  those  frequently  do  who  feel  that  their 


100  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

Decline  of  position  is  growing  weaker — they  used  all  means  to  kee_p 
Govlrn-atk  it;  they  acted  unjustly  and  despotically.  This  only  made 
ments.  matters  worse,  and  they  were  finally  forced  to  yield  to 

the  storm. 

Rise  of  the  126.  One  chief  cause  of  complaint  was  that  they  alone 
Lawgivers.  j^new  tne  Law  and  administered  it  according  to  their  own 
will.  Hence,  the  demand  arose  for  the  publication  of  the 
law.  It  was  secured  in  a  truly  Greek  fashion.  One  man 
was  chosen,  the  best  man  in  the  state,  to  whom  all  power 
was  given  that  he  might  prepare,  publish  and  administer 
a  code  of  law  which  should  be  binding  upon  the  people. 
Thus,  almost  every  Greek  state  of  the  time  had  its  Law- 
giver, or  in  later  days  traced  its  constitution  back  to  some 
great  man  who  was  thought  to  be  its  author.  Such  famous 
names  were  Charondas  of  Locri,  Lycurgus  of  Sparta, 
Pittacus  of  Mytilene,  Solon  of  Athens.  As  a  result,  peo- 
ple knew  what  the  law  was  and  could  fix  the  responsibility 
for  crime  and  injustice.  The  broad  and  deep  meaning 
of  such  a  measure  should  not  be  overlooked.  That  the 
state  owed  it  to  the  citizens  to  do  justice  on  the  basis  of  a 
public  code  of  laws,  that  the  best  man  in  the  state  should 
prepare  these  laws,  and  that,  once  put  forth,  it  was  the 
citizen's  duty  to  obey  them — these  were  principles  which 
no  ancient  people  had  before  so  fully  realized. 
Appearance  1 27.  The  publication  of  the  laws  had  saved  the  aristo- 
Tyrants.  cratic  rule  for  the  time,  but  it  had  not  been  accompanied 
with  any  larger  political  rights  to  those  outside  the  circle 
of  the  nobles.  Hence  arose  a  new  struggle.  All  who 
were  dissatisfied  with  aristocratic  rule  joined  together  in 
opposition  to  it;  the  whole  body  was  called  the  Demos, 
the  "people,"  and  their  aim  was  the  overthrow  of  the  rul- 
ing powers.  They  succeeded.  Here  and  there  men  put 


Rule  of  the  Tyrants  101 

themselves  at  the  head  of  the  revolutionary  movement 
and  by  it  gained  the  supreme  power  for  themselves.  These 
men  were  called  Tyrants.  They  were  theoretically  kings, 
reviving  the  old  monarchy,  with  larger  powers.  They  Splendor  of 
destroyed  the  rule  of  the  aristocracy  and  governed  their  TheirRule- 
states  with  vigor  and  splendor.  All  over  the  Greek  world 
in  these  days  tyrants  appeared  and  in  some  states  con- 
tinued to  rule  down  to  the  last  Greek  age.  They  favored 
commerce  and  trade,  grew  rich  from  their  skilful  manage- 
ment of  affairs,  adorned  their  cities  with  magnificent 
buildings,  encouraged  art  and  literature,  and  with  much 
political  wisdom  guided  their  states  in  new  paths  of  prog- 
ress. The  people,  by  whose  aid  they  had  gained  their 
place,  were  not,  indeed,  given  any  political  rights,  but  the 
satisfaction  of  having  rid  themselves  of  aristocratic  rule 
and  the  enlarged  prosperity  and  comfort  enjoyed  were 
sufficient  for  the  time  to  satisfy  them. 

128.  One  of  the  first  tyrants  was  Thrasybulus  of  some  of 
Miletus,  a  shrewd  and  energetic  ruler,  who  was  able  to 
keep  his  city  independent  of  Lydia  (§115).  In  Corinth 
the  aristocracy  was  overthrown  by  Cypselus,  whose  father 
was  a  commoner,  but  his  mother  of  a  noble  family. 
His  son  Periander  followed  him  (625-585  B.C.)  He  was 
a  friend  and  ally  of  Thrasybulus. 

Herodotus  relates  a  characteristic  story  of  their  relations:  "He  sent 
a  messenger  to  Thrasybulus  and  asked  what  settlement  of  affairs  was 
the  safest  for  him  to  make,  in  order  that  he  might  best  govern  his 
State:  and  Thrasybulus  led  forth  the  messenger  who  had  come  from 
Periander  out  of  the  city,  and  entered  into  a  field  of  growing  corn; 
and  as  he  passed  through  the  crop  of  corn,  while  inquiring  and  ask- 
ing questions  repeatedly  of  the  messenger  about  the  occasion  of  his 
coming  from  Corinth,  he  kept  cutting  off  the  heads  of  those  ears  of 
corn  which  he  saw  higher  than  the  rest;  and  as  he  cut  off  their  heads 


102  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

he  cast  them  away,  until  he  had  destroyed  in  this  manner  the  finest 
and  richest  part  of  the  crop.  So  having  passed  through  the  place  and 
having  suggested  no  word  of  counsel,  he  dismissed  the  messenger. 
When  the  messenger  returned  to  Corinth,  Periander  was  anxious  to 
hear  the  counsel  which  had  been  given;  but  he  said  that  Thrasybulus 
had  given  him  no  counsel,  and  added  that  he  wondered  at  the  deed 
of  Periander  in  sending  him  to  such  a  man,  for  the  man  was  out  of  his 
senses  and  a  waster  of  his  own  goods — relating  at  the  same  time  that 
which  he  had  seen  Thrasybulus  do.  So  Periander,  understanding 
that  which  had  been  done  and  perceiving  that  Thrasybulus  coun- 
selled him  to  put  to  death  those  who  were  eminent  among  his  subjects, 
began  then  to  display  all  manner  of  evil  treatment  to  the  citizens  of 
the  State;  for  whatsoever  Cypselus  had  left  undone  in  killing  and 
driving  into  exile,  this  Periander  completed." 

connth  129.  But  Periander  was  more  than  a  despot  and  a 

Periander  butcher.  He  raised  his  city  to  the  leading  place  among 
the  Greek  states  of  his  day.  Her  power  on  the  sea  was 
mighty.  The  first  war-ships  with  three  banks  of  oars — 
called  Triremes — were  built  at  Corinth.  With  his  fleet 
Periander  subdued  Corcyra  in  the  first  sea-fight  of 
Greek  history.  He  was  a  patron  of  letters.  The  poet 
Arion  was  said  to  have  been  an  ornament  of  his  court, 
and  tradition  has  made  the  tyrant  one  of  the  "Seven 
Wise  Men"  of  Greece  (§  122). 

Decline  and  130.  The  new  spirit  of  Greece,  which  had  raised  the 
Tyrants. "  tyrants  to  the  throne,  would  not  let  them  remain  there 
long.  The  nobles  were  always  hostile  to  them;  the  De- 
mos, still  deprived  of  political  rights,  grew  dissatisfied. 
Then  the  tyrants*  in  their  turn  grew  more  despotic,  and 
ruled  by  force  and  fear,  until  all  parties  united  to  put  them 
down.  The  tyranny  usually  lasted  no  longer  than  the 
second  generation.  It  had  accomplished  one  result— 

*  Owing  to  this  later  form  of  the  tyranny  our  word  "tyrant"  has  a 
bad  meaning. 


Fall  of  the  Tyrant  103 

the  universal  rule  of  the  aristocracy  had  perished  and  the 
way  was  opened  for  the  advance  of  the  people.  When  it 
fell,  its  place  was  taken  usually  by  citizens  prominent 
because  of  their  property,  and  the  change  was  accom- 
panied by  making  more  of  the  people  citizens.  Such  a 
government  was  called  a  Timocracy  (from  the  Greek  ti-me, 
"value")  and  was  a  step  toward  putting  the  control  of 
affairs  in  the  hands  of  the  citizens — the  form  of  govern- 
ment called  Democracy  (from  the  Greek  demos,  "peo-  Rise  of 
pie").  Democracy,  the  unique  contribution  of  Greece 
to  political  progress,  was  worked  out  in  the  next  period. 


OUTLINE    FOR   REVIEW 
II.     THE  GREEK  EMPIRES 

I.  The  Beginnings  of  Greece  and  its  Expansion:  (i)  The  Mycenaean 
Age.  (2)  The  Middle  Age.  (3)  THE  AGE  OF  POLITICAL  ADJUST- 
MENT AND  EXPANSION:  Three  lines  of  change  arise:  (i)  Sense  of 
Greek  unity — appearing  in  literature,  religion.  (2)  Growth  of 
civilization — seen  in  use  of  money,  writing,  interest  in  present  life 
(poetry,  science,  and  philosophy) — in  religion  (the  official  and  the 
popular  faith,  mysteries).  (3)  Political  changes — fall  of  aris- 
tocracy, Law-givers,  Tyrants,  rise  of  democracy. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  are  the  following  famous: 
Theognis,  Thales,  Hesiod,  Pythagoras,  Alcaeus,  Amasis,  Anac- 
reon?  2.  What  is  meant  by  Amphictyony,  Mysteries,  Hel- 
lenes, Elegiac?  3.  What  is  the  date  of  the  First  Olympiad? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  the  early  Greek  idea 
of  the  form  of  the  world  with  that  of  the  Egyptians  and 
Babylonians  (§  33).  2.  Compare  the  political  effects  of 
commerce  and  trade  upon  the  Greeks  with  their  effect  upon 
Oriental  peoples  (§§  20,  23,  56-59,  69). 

TOPICS    FOR    READING    AND    ORAL    REPORT.     1.  Greek 

Ships.    Bury,  pp.  109-110;  Diets,  of  Antiquities,  arts.    "Ship"  or 
"Navy."  2.  The  Games  and  the  Oracles.    Morey,  pp.  150-153; 


104  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

Botsford,  pp.  98-103;  Zimmern,  ch.  2;  Bury,  pp.  139-144 
(Olympia),  157-161  (Delphi).  3.  How  Reduce  Olympiads  to 
Terms  of  Our  Chronology?  Abbott,  Skeleton  Outline,  p.  18; 
West,  p.  lor.  4.  The  Ionic  Philosophers.  Morey,  pp.  161-164; 
Botsford,  pp.  92-96.  5.  The  Greek  Temple.  Morey,  pp.  154-158; 
Bury,  p.  152.  6.  The  Lyric  Poets.  Morey,  pp.  159-161;  Bury, 
pp.  118-119;  Botsford,  pp.  89-90;  Capps,  pp.  141-172;  Shuck' 
burgh,  pp.  27-29;  Jebb,  p.  491.  7.  Hesiod  and  His  School. 
Bury,  pp.  107-108;  Botsford,  pp.  87-88;  Murray,  pp.  53-62; 
Capps,  pp.  129-140;  Jebb,  pp.  40-46.  8.  The  Lawgivers. 
Bury,  pp.  144-146.  9.  The  Tyrants.  Bury,  pp.  146-157;  Bots- 
ford, pp.  64-70. 

Th«  TWO          131 .  Among  the  city-states  that  from  time  to  time  have 
StatwTof       appeared  in  the  history  of  these  centuries,  two  come  forward 
the  Time,      prominently  as  we  draw  near  the  close  of  this  age — Sparta 
and  Athens.     They  show  the  influence  of  the  forces  which 
have  been  described,  and  they  became  later  the  leading 
states  of  Greece.     The  story  of  their  rise  and  early  history, 
therefore,  properly  closes  the  Period  of  Beginnings. 
Sparta.  132.  The  foundation  of  the  Spartan  political  system 

has  already  been  described  (§  107).  It  was  essentially 
military,  as  the  tribal  organization  always  is.  Its  mem- 
bers must  ever  be  ready  for  war.  The  men  must  live 
together  and  be  unhampered  by  family  ties.  Children 
must  be  brought  up  to  be  warriors.  Everything  in  the 
way  of  art  and  science,  all  refinement  of  culture,  was  dis- 
couraged. When,  all  over  the  rest  of  Greece,  the  forces 
shuts  Out  that  followed  in  the  train  of  commerce  were  breaking 
LifeNeW  down  the  old  way  of  living  and  thinking,  Sparta  sternly 
set  her  face  against  all  changes.  Strangers  were  rigorously 
banished.  The  only  money  there  current  was  of  iron 
and  in  coins  of  small  denominations.  The  only  music 
was  the  march,  the  only  poetry  the  war-song.  Their  words 
were  few;  they  preferred  deeds.  The  one  principle  of 


Spartan  Life  and  Institutions          105 

life  was  discipline.     The  virtues  most  highly  prized  and  The 
most  diligently  encouraged  were  those  of  the  warrior —  Ipj 
strength,  courage,  endurance,  skill  in  arms.   The  supreme 
sentiment  for  the  people  was  obedience  to  the  chosen 
leaders.     One  might  have  expected  that  these  would  be 
their  two  kings.     But  for  some  reason  not  exactly  clear  The 
they  gave  the  chief  authority  to  officials,  elected  from  the  SS 
people   year   by  year,   called    Ephors.      These   officials  tion- 
came  to  control  all  parts  of  the  state;  even  the  kings  were 
subject  to  them.     The  kings,  indeed,  led  the  army  in  war, 
but  even  then  two  ephors  were  always  with  them.     The 
Council  of  elders,  called  Gerontes,  continued  to  exist, 
as  did  also  the  Public  Assembly,  but  the  powers  of  both  in 
reality  were  very  limited.*     Thus  the  Spartans  were,  by 
their  organization  and  training,  destined  for  war.     One 
particular  element  of  the  system — that  of  living  together 
in  the  city — especially  forced  them  to  it.     There  was  not 
land  enough  at  Sparta,  nor  could  the  Spartans  leave  the 
city  to  till  fields  at  a  distance,  if  they  were  to  be  in  constant 
readiness   for  military   activity   at   home.     Hence,   very  The 
early,  they  are  found  conquering  the  slopes  of  the  moun-  ^JTr 
tains  to  the  east  and  the  sea-coast,  reducing  the  inhabitants 
to  state  servitude  and  forcing  them  to  till  the  soil  for  the 
benefit  of  the  conquerors.     These  state  serfs  were  called 
Helots.     Their  condition  was  not  an  enviable  one.     The 
inhabitants  of  other  cities  were  allowed  their  freedom  on 
condition  of  paying  tribute;  these  were  called  Periceci. 
Both  classes  served  in  the  army  under  their  Spartan  mas- 

*  In  later  times  the  Spartans  ascribed  this  constitution  of  theirs  to  a 
lawgiver  named  Lycurgus  and  wove  a  story  about  him  and  his  do- 
ings. In  fact  he  was  a  god  whom  they  had  once  worshipped  and  whom 
they  turned  into  a  man  and  made  the  founder  of  the  system.  It  really 
sprang  up  in  the  natural  way  just  described. 


106  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

ters.  This  conquering  army  soon  directed  its  attention 
to  the  regions  in  the  west.  Here  across  the  Taygetus 
mountains  was  a  wide  and  fertile  plain  called  Messenia. 

war  with     Its  inhabitants  made  a  desperate  resistance  in  what  is 

Messema.  called  ^  First  Messenian  War,  but  were  reduced  to  sub- 
mission. Thus  all  the  southern  Peloponnesus  was  under 
Spartan  rule,  parceled  out  among  Spartan  citizens. 
When  from  Messenia  the  Spartans  pushed  northward  into 
the  district  called  Elis,  they  came  into  contact  with  more 
formidable  foes.  At  the  time  of  the  Dorian  migration  the 
strongest  of  the  invading  bodies  had  settled  down  in  the 
eastern  Peloponnesus  in  the  district  of  Argos.  At  the 
time  of  the  Spartan  advance  into  Elis  a  vigorous  king 

Pheidon       called  Pheidon  was  on  the  Argive  throne  (about  660  B.C.). 

of  Argos.  jje  was  m  jiearty  Sympathy  with  the  new  life  of  the  day, 
as  is  shown  by  a  system  of  weights  and  measures  intro- 
duced by  him,  which  spread  all  over  Greece;  it  was  called 
the  /Eginetan  system.  To  check  Sparta's  victorious  prog- 
ress, he  joined  with  two  other  Peloponnesian  states,  Ar- 
cadia and  Pisatis,  and,  in  connection  with  a  rebellion 
of  the  Messenians,  entered  on  a  conflict  with  Sparta,  which 
is  called  the  Second  Messenian  War  (about  650  B.C.). 
Yet,  though  the  struggle  was  long  and  fierce,  Sparta  was 
finally  victorious  here  also.  Next  we  find  her  pushing 
northward  up  the  Eurotas  valley  against  the  Arcadian 
city  of  Tegea.  Against  these  Arcadian  mountaineers 
not  so  much  headway  was  made;  whereupon  Sparta 
adopted  a  new  political  policy.  A  treaty  was  made, 
whereby  Tegea,  in  return  for  being  left  in  peace,  agreed 
to  contribute  a  force  to  the  Spartan  army  and  to  make 
Sparta's  friends  her  friends.  This  plan  worked  so  well 
that  Sparta  proceeded  to  extend  it  to  other  cities,  until 


Athens,  its  Beginnings  107 

finally,  on  these  conditions,  a  League  of  all  the  Peloponne-  The 
sian  states  except  Argos  was  formed  under  Spartan  leader- 
ship.  By  525  B.C., Sparta  was  the  greatest  Greek  state; 
besides  her  own  territories,  Elis,  Corinth,  ^Egina,  Megara 
and  Sicyon  were  members  of  the  League.  Foreign  powers 
coming  into  contact  with  Greece  sought  her  alliance. 
Thus  she  joined  with  Lydia  and  the  other  eastern  states 
against  Cyrus  (§82).  Outside  the  Peloponnesus  she  was 
involved  in  relations  with  other  Greek  communities,  par- 
ticularly with  the  growing  state  of  Athens.  To  understand 
these  larger  complications  we  must  turn  aside  to  follow 
the  rise  and  early  history  of  Athens. 

133.  Attica,  of  which  Athens  was  the  chief  city,  was  Athens 
a  rough,  poorly  watered  and  unproductive  peninsula,  jut- 
ting out  into  the  ^Egean  and  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  Greece 

by  Mount  Parnes,  an  offshoot  of  the  Cithaeron  range. 
The  city  lay  in  a  little  valley  through  which  the  Cephis-  Position 
sus  flowed  to  the  southwest  into  the  Saronic  gulf.  Dwell- 
ers in  the  plain  had  early  gathered  about  a  lofty  isolated 
mass  of  rock,  the  Acropolis,  so  easy  of  defence  as  to  be 
marked  out  for  the  centre  of  a  city.  The  plain  sloped 
gently  to  the  sea  and  was  itself  protected  by  mountains 
on  either  side.  The  community  worshipped  the  goddess 
Athene,  its  patron  and  defender,  who  gave  the  name  to 
the  city.  The  prevailing  race-type  was  Ionian.  Already  People 
Athens  had  united  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula  in 
one  city-state  (§  108). 

134.  Moreover,  when  we  come  to  know  Athens,  the  Early 
aristocracy  was  already  in  control.     Traditions  told  how 
kings  had  once  ruled,  but  these  had  gradually  been  re- 
stricted in  powers  and  in  dignities,  until  hardly  more  re- 
mained to  remind  one  of  them  than  the  name  "king"  ap- 


108 


The  Beginnings  of  Greece 


Aristocrats 
in  Control. 


plied  to  the  chief  minister  of  religion.  In  their  place  came 
yearly  officials  called  Archons,  nine  in  number,  for  the 
conduct  of  civil,  military,  religious  and  financial  adminis- 
tration. The  Tribal  Council  took  two  forms :  (i)  a  body  of 
forty-eight  heads  of  local  districts,  each  of  which  supplied 
a  war-ship  (^naus),  hence  called  the  Council  of  the  Nau- 
craries,  and  (2)  a  body  made  up  of  ex-officials,  it  seems, 
charged  chiefly  with  judicial  powers,  called  the  Council 
of  the  Areopagus  (the  "Hill  of  Curses").  Of  course, 
both  officials  and  councils  were  limited  to  aristocrats,  who 
also  controlled,  if  they  did  not  make  up,  the  Public  As- 
sembly. As  elsewhere,  so  especially  in  Athens,  there  was 
a  large  number  of  freemen  who,  under  aristocratic  ad- 
ministration, were  entirely  outside  of  public  activities. 
The  members  of  noble  houses,  like  the  Medontidas 
and  the  Alcmaeonidae,  were  all-powerful;  none  could 
break  into  their  close  circle.  Their  heads  were  leaders 
and  their  members  were  citizens  of  the  state.  The  army 
was  organized  in  three  divisions:  first,  the  knights  (hip- 
peis),  the  aristocrats  who  could  afford  to  have  war-horses 
and  fine  weapons;  second,  the  heavy-armed  footmen 
(zeugitae,  i.e.,  who  had  farms  big  enough  to  employ  a 
yoke  of  oxen);  third,  the  light-armed  troops  (thetes,  i.e., 
petty  land-owners  and  farm  laborers).  All  the  people  of 
Attica  were  divided  into  four  tribes,  each  with  its  chief 
and  its  god. 

135.  But,  in  time,  the  aristocratic  state  was  affected 
by  the  new  life.  A  certain  noble,  Cylon  by  name,  at- 
tempted to  make  himself  tyrant  (about  635  B.C.),  but 
without  success.  Commerce  was  making  some  men  rich 
and  others  poor;  farmers  were  in  debt  and  many  were 
Lawgivers,  being  sold  into  slavery.  The  Demos  was  rising.  A  Law- 


Tyrants. 


Draco  and  Solon  109 

giver  (§  126),  Draco,  was  appointed  (about  624  B.C.).  Draco. 
His  legislation  availed  but  little,  the  only  important 
thing  in  it  being  the  distinction  between  the  penalty  for 
different  sorts  of  murder.  Heretofore,  all  killing  had 
been  murder  and  its  penalty  death  at  the  hands  of  the 
relatives  of  the  dead  man  (§  105).  Now,  accidental  or 
justifiable  homicide  was  distinguished  in  its  punishment 
from  wilful  murder.  As  Draco's  laws  were  chiefly  a  col- 
lection of  the  old  customs  of  the  land,  they  seemed  to  the 
later  Athenians  exceedingly  severe  and  were  said  to  have 
been  "  written  in  blood."  Another  trial  of  a  lawgiver  was 
made  in  594  B.C.,  by  the  choice  of  Solon  as  sole  archon  Solon, 
of  the  state  with  unlimited  authority  in  the  settlement 
of  affairs. 

136.  Athens  had  already  begun  to  enter  heartily  into  Early 
the  commercial  activity  of  the  time.     Pottery  was  manu- 
factured;  olive  oil — the  chief  natural  product  of  Attica — 
exported  and  grain  imported;  colonizing  entered  upon. 

An  important  station  on  the  trade  route  to  the  Black 
sea  was  secured — Sigeum  on  the  northwestern  coast  of 
Asia  Minor.  A  great  hindrance  was  Megara's  possession 
of  Salamis,  the  island  at  the  very  gates  of  Athens.  A 
struggle  to  secure  it  for  Athens  had  been  crowned  with 
victory  through  the  inspiring  war-poetry  of  Solon.  He 
was,  therefore,  a  prominent  man;  an  aristocrat,  but  a 
friend  of  the  people,  eager  to  deliver  them  from  their  dis- 
tresses and  to  give  them  a  place  and  a  part  in  the  state. 

137.  The  measures  of  Solon  were  vital  and  thorough- 
going.     The  fundamental  thing  he  did  was  to  make  all 
free   native-born   people   citizens.     Second,    he   relieved 
them  from  their  chief  burdens  by  remitting  all  debts  con- 
tracted on  their  lands  or  secured  on  the  person  or  family 


110  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

of  the  debtor.  Third,  he  gave  all  some  part  in  the  conduct 
of  the  state.  All  the  citizens,  rich  and  poor  alike,  were 
made  members  of  the  Public  Assembly.  All  over  thirty 
years  old  and  of  good  moral  character  were  eligible  to 
membership  in  a  new  Court  of  justice  called  the  Heli- 
aea,  which  was  the  final  court  of  appeal.  The  council  of 
the  Areopagus  was  constituted  as  a  special  court  of  jus- 
tice and  given  supervision  of  the  laws.  The  other  council 
was  transformed  by  being  increased  to  400  members  and 
called  the  Boule  or  Senate.  Its  chief  function  was  to 
prepare  business  for  the  Public  Assembly.  The  higher 
magistracies,  those  of  archon,  treasurer,  etc.,  were  open 
only  to  men  of  the  largest  wealth;  the  lesser  offices 
could  be  occupied  by  the  less  wealthy  citizens.  A  new 
arrangement  was  made  for  choosing  the  archons.  Forty 
were  nominated,  ten  by  each  tribe,  and  from  these  the  nine 
were  chosen.  The  distribution  of  administrative  positions, 
while  in  principle  based  on  wealth,  resulted  in  actual 
practice  in  giving  the  highest  offices  to  the  most  influential 
hippeis,  and  in  dividing  the  rest  of  the  places  between 
the  other  hippeis  and  the  zeugitae.  No  thetes  were 

its  spirit,  eligible  for  the  magistracy.  The  state,  therefore,  remained 
aristocratic  in  administration,  although  the  people  at  large 
were  given  political  rights  never  before  possessed;  these 
in  time  were  certain  to  be  emphasized  and  enlarged.  It 
may  be  truly  said  that  Solon  was  the  founder  of  the 
Athenian  Democracy. 

Renewal  of  138.  The  constitution  made  by  Solon  prepared  the  way 
for  progress,  but  it  did  not  actually  bring  relief  to  the  state. 
Conflict  and  distress  continued.  Finally,  by  the  aid  of  the 

Pisistratus,  peasants  (chiefly  thetes),  a  nobleman  called  Pisistratus 
was  able  to  usurp  the  government  in  561  B.C.,  and  though 


Pisistratus  111 

driven  from  power,  regained  it  about  545  B.C.,  and  was 
tyrant  until  his  death  in  528  B.C.  By  him,  the  poor  peas-  His  Admin- 
ants,  who  had  been  relieved  of  their  debts  and  given  citi- 
zenship by  Solon,  were  granted  land  and  money  to  set  up 
farming  and  to  become  self-supporting  and  useful  citizens. 
They  could  not  exercise  political  rights,  but  became  eco- 
nomically comfortable.  Pisistratus  favored  commerce, 
which  brought  increasing  wealth  to  the  state.  His  court,  like  His  Court, 
those  of  the  other  tyrants  (§  127),  was  brilliant;  literature 
and  art  were  encouraged.  It  is  said  that  Homer's  poems 
were  first  written  down  under  his  patronage  and  that  he 
established  a  library  at  Athens.  A  temple  to  Athene,  the 
patron  goddess  of  the  city,  was  built.  The  gods  Zeus  and 
Apollo  were  enrolled  among  the  deities  to  be  publicly  wor- 
shipped. An  important  part  of  the  state-religion  dates  Religious 
from  his  establishment  of  the  festivals  of  the  god  Dionysus 
(§  124),  the  Flower  Festival  of  the  early  spring  (in  Feb- 
ruary) and  the  Vintage  Festival  of  the  winter  (in  Decem- 
ber). At  the  latter  he  introduced  the  sacred  Play  in  which 
scenes  in  the  life  of  the  god  were  exhibited — the  Tragedy 
or  Goat-song  and  the  Comedy  or  Village-song.  It  is 
worth  remembering  that  in  535  B.C.  Thespis  produced  the 
first  tragedy  at  Athens  in  connection  with  these  festivals. 
The  theatre  there  was  a  part  of  religious  worship.  The  His 
foreign  politics  of  Pisistratus  were  successful  in  making  J°uticfc 
Athens  a  power  in  the  Greek  world.  He  controlled  the 
approaches  to  the  Hellespont  and  was  in  alliance  with  the 
Thessalians  and  with  Argos.  By  his  services  to  the  sanct- 
uary of  Apollo  on  the  island  of  Delos,  a  favorite  Ionian 
centre,  he  became  a  leader  among  the  lonians  of  the 
^Egean.  On  his  death  (528  B.C.)  he  was  succeeded  with- 
out opposition  by  his  two  sons,  Hippias  and  Hipparchus. 


112  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

Tyranny  139.  But  the  tyranny  was  to  have  as  short  a  life  at 
thrown.  Athens  as  it  had  enjoyed  elsewhere  (§  130).  The  same 
reasons  for  its  overthrow  existed  there.  In  addition,  the 
advance  of  the  Persians  to  the  ;£gean  (§  90)  had  cut  off 
the  commercial  and  political  influence  of  Athens  in  the 
east  and  northeast  so  skilfully  built  up  by  Pisistratus. 
Thus  business  distress  followed.  The  growing  discontent 
was  manifested  in  the  murder  of  Hipparchus.  Finally, 
by  the  influence  of  the  oracle  at  Delphi,  Sparta  was  in- 
duced to  send  an  army  under  king  Cleomenes  to  drive 
Hippias  out  (510  B.C.).  After  he  was  gone,  the  Spartans 
attempted  to  set  up  an  aristocratic  government,  but  after 
a  struggle  the  Athenian  people  under  the  leadership  of 
Cleisthenes,  the  head  of  the  family  of  the  Alcmaeonidae, 
Legislation  a  friend  of  the  Demos,  was  able  to  gain  control  of  the  state 
thenes'8"  (5°^  B-c-)-  Cleisthenes  immediately  set  about  a  reorgani- 
zation of  the  state  on  the  basis  of  the  constitution  of  Solon 
with  the  purpose  of  correcting  the  defects  and  guarding 
against  the  dangers  of  the  former  legislation.  Two  evils 
had  not  been  met  by  the  Solonian  constitution — the  people 
could  not  exercise  the  rights  given  them  because  of  aristo- 
cratic influence,  and  parties  based  on  local  self-interest 
rent  the  state.  To  meet  these  difficulties  Cleisthenes 
made  some  fundamental  changes.  He  organized  the  peo- 
ple into  ten  tribes.  Each  tribe  was  made  up  of  three  parts 
taken  by  lot  from  each  of  the  three  local  divisions  of  Attica, 
the  upland,  the  plain  and  the  coast,  where  dwelt  respec- 
tively the  peasants,  the  landed  proprietors  and  the  mer- 
chants. Thus  all  interests  and  all  parties  were  likely  to  be 
represented  in  each  tribe.  The  unit  of  each  tribe  was  the 
deme,  or  township;  to  be  a  citizen  one  must  be  enrolled 
in  a  deme;  it  elected  its  officials,  who  revised  its  list  of  citi- 


Constitution  of  Cleisthenes  113 

zen  members  from  time  to  time  and  probably  cared  for  the 
taxes.  At  the  same  time  a  large  body  of  new  citizens  was 
created  by  the  admission  of  strangers  and  freedmen  resi- 
dent in  the  land.  The  Senate  (Boule)  was  increased  to 
500  members,  fifty  from  each  tribe,  chosen  in  the  demes  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  citizens  in  each  deme.  The  year 
was  divided  into  ten  parts,  and  each  body  of  fifty  senators 
presided  over  public  business  for  a  month.  As  such  it 
was  called  a  Prytany  and  was  lodged  and  fed  at  the 
public  expense  during  that  time.  Ten  generals  (strat- 
egoi)  were  chosen,  one  from  each  tribe.  The  other  offi- 
cials were  appointed  as  before.  A  new  device  for  guard- 
ing against  tyranny  was  Ostracism.  Every  year  the 
citizens  were  given  the  privilege  of  voting  as  to  whether 
any  prominent  man  was  dangerous  to  the  state.  If  6,000 
citizens  voted,  a  majority  of  votes  recorded  against  any  one 
upon  the  pieces  of  tile  (ostrakd)  used  for  the  purpose, 
compelled  him  to  leave  the  state  for  ten  years,  though 
neither  his  property  nor  his  citizen  rights  were  lost. 

140.  Thus  Athens  became  a  definitely  democratic  com-  The  victory 
munity.     Solon  had  established  the  citizen  body  in  its  °^7t°c~ 
political  rights;   Pisistratus  had  given  the  poor  people  Athens, 
opportunity  to  become  self-supporting  and  respectable; 
Cleisthenes  made  it  possible  for  them  to  use  their  power 
in  the  actual  conduct  of  the  state.     A  notable  political 
experiment  was  now  tried  for  the  first  time  in  history. 
The  opportunity  was  soon  to  come  in  which  it  would  be 
seen  whether  popular  government  was  equal  to  meeting 
the  strain  of  war  and  suffering.     The  Persian  war-cloud 
was  hanging  over  the  eastern  horizon  (§  90).     With  its 
swift  approach  the  era  of  Greek  Beginnings  drew  to  its 
close  (500  B.C.). 


114  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 
II.  THE  GREEK  EMPIRES 

I.  The  Beginnings  of  Greece  and  its  Expansion,  (i)  The  Mycenaean 
Age.  (2)  The  Middle  Age.  (3)  THE  AGE  OF  POLITICAL  ADJUST- 
MENT AND  EXPANSION  (continued) :  Two  states  as  illustrating  the 
times:  (a)  Sparta  (characteristics,  politics,  expansion,  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  league).  (6)  Athens  (position,  people,  early  politics, 
aristocracy,  lawgivers,  Solon  and  his  work — tyrants,  Cleisthenes 
and  his  work,  outcome). 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  What  is  meant  by  Deme,  Gerontes, 
Prytany,  Helot,  Acropolis,  Perioeci,  Heliaea,  Boule?  2.  Who 
were  Pheidon,  Thespis,  Dionysus,  Cleomenes?  3.  Locate 
from  memory  on  an  outline  map  all  the  cities  and  countries 
mentioned  in  §§  131-140.  4.  What  is  the  date  of  the  Second 
Messenian  War?  of  Solon? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  Compare  the  manner  in  which 
Sparta  built  up  her  power  in  the  Peloponnesus  with  the  manner 
in  which  the  eastern  states  built  up  their  power  (§§  13, 14,  35, 
42,  68-71). 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  The 
Story  of  Lycurgus  and  the  Historical  Problem  Involved.  Bury, 
pp.  135-136.  2.  Cylon's  Rebellion.  Bury,  pp.  175-179.  3.  The 
Story  of  Solon.  Plutarch,  Life  of  Solon.  4.  The  Cretan  Con- 
stitution Compared  with  that  of  Sparta.  Bury,  pp.  136-139.  5. 
Sparta's  Beginnings  and  Organization.  Morey,  pp.  112-117; 
Bury,  pp.  120-125;  Botsford,  pp.  27-29,  56-63;  Shuckburgh,  pp. 
30-45;  Zimmern,  ch.  3.  6.  Sparta's  Expansion.  Morey,  pp. 
118-120;  Bury,  pp.  125-129;  Botsford,  pp.  77-80.  7.  Early 
History  of  Athens.  Morey,  pp.  120—125;  Bury,  pp.  163—180; 
Botsford,  pp.  25-27, 41-48;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  55-68.  8.  Solon's 
Constitution.  Morey,  pp.  125-129;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  68-86; 
Botsford,  pp.  48-56;  Bury,  pp.  180-189.  9.  Pisistratus. 
Morey,  pp.  129-131;  Bury,  pp.  192-202;  Botsford,  pp.  70-77; 
Shuckburgh,  pp.  81-88.  10.  The  Reforms  of  Cleisthenes. 
Morey,  pp.  131-134;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  88-93;  Botsford,  pp. 
81-86;  Bury,  pp.  210-215. 


Summary  of  Greek  Beginnings        115 

141.  The  beginnings  of  Greek  life  are  unknown.  The  Summary 
Oriental  peoples  were  already  far  advanced  in  civiliza-  period. 
tion  when  the  first  light  breaks  on  the  ^Egean  world. 
Yet  by  1500  B.C.  a  series  of  vigorous  and  well-advanced 
Greek  communities,  extending  from  Cyprus  to  Sicily,  ap- 
peared, having  political  and  commercial  relations  to  the 
East.  This  so-called  Mycenaean  age  was  brought  to  an 
end  by  the  descent  of  rude  tribes  from  the  north,  which  is 
called  the  Dorian  Migration.  This  cut  off  Greece  from 
the  outer  world  and  set  in  motion  new  forces  of  political 
and  social  organization.  Changes  from  tribal  life  to  local 
settlement  created  the  city-state  and  put  at  its  head  the 
aristocratic  government.  When  the  new-comers  had 
adjusted  themselves  to  their  new  homes,  commerce  began 
to  revive  on  the  shores  of  the  ^Egean.  The  cities  on  the 
Asia  Minor  coast  came  forward.  New  relations  with  the 
Orient  arose.  Wealth  gave  leisure  and  opportunity  for 
the  new  growth  of  literature  and  art  and  religion.  Epic 
poetry  reached  its  height  in  Homer.  The  Greeks  began 
to  know  themselves  as  one  people,  the  Hellenes,  and  to 
form  their  ideals  of  social,  religious  and  political  life.  The 
Olympic  Gods  (§  113),  the  religious  Games  (§  118),  the 
Delphic  Oracle,  the  Amphictyonies,  were  signs  of  the 
times.  Commerce  led  to  a  wide  and  enterprising  colonial 
activity  in  the  Mediterranean  world.  All  this  new  life 
reacted  upon  the  Greeks  to  produce  (i)  dissatisfaction 
with  aristocratic  rule,  leading  to  the  appointment  of  Law- 
givers, the  appearance  of  Tyrannies  and  the  rise  of  De- 
mocracy; and  (2)  larger  relations  with  the  outside  world, 
particularly  with  the  Oriental  Empires  now  being  rapidly 
merged  into  the  Persian  Empire.  Two  states  rose  above 
the  others  as  the  age  drew  to  an  end.  Sparta  illustrates 


116  The  Beginnings  of  Greece 

the  tendency  to  maintain  the  old  tribal  system  with  its 
equality  and  its  military  bent.  It  grew  by  conquest, 
until  it  occupied  half  the  Peloponnesus  and  formed  a 
political  League  embracing  almost  all  the  rest.  Thus  it 
was  the  leading  Greek  state.  Athens  went  to  the  other 
extreme.  Its  lawgivers,  Solon  and  Cleisthenes,  led  the 
way  in  the  establishment  of  popular  government.  Pisis- 
tratus,  the  Athenian  tyrant,  gave  the  state  a  leading  place 
among  the  commercial  powers  of  the  time.  Thus  by  500 
B.C.  the  Greek  world  had  reached  a  point  at  which,  its  po- , 
litical  institutions  fixed  and  its  states  firmly  established, 
it  was  prepared  to  take  its  place  and  do  its  work  in  world 
politics.  This  place  and  work  in  the  world  were  opened 
to  it  in  the  rapidly  approaching  complications  with  the 
Persian  Empire. 


GENERAL   REVIEW  OF   PART   II,   DIVISION    1 

TOPICS  FOR  CLASS  DISCUSSION.  I.  Trace  the  development 
of  political  institutions  through  the  three  epochs  of  this  period 
(§§  101,  105-108,  125-130).  2.  Note  the  various  stages  in  the 
development  of  literature  and  art  in  this  period  (§§  101,  no, 
i IT,  117,  120,  138).  3.  Show  how  the  literature  and  art  of 
each  epoch  corresponds  to  the  political  history  of  that  epoch. 
4.  Give  a  history  of  the  Greek  king  (§§  101,  105,  106,  107,  127, 
134).  5.  Compare  the  history  of  Sparta  and  Athens  as  they 
were  affected  by  the  general  political  development  of  Greece 
(§§  I07»  IQ8,  132-140).  6.  Trace  the  influence  of  commerce 
on  the  life  of  the  Greeks  during  this  period  (§§  102, 109,  no,  114). 
7.  On  what  occasions  during  this  period  did  the  Greeks  come 
into  contact  with  outside  peoples?  Who  were  these  peoples 
and  what  did  the  contact  mean  for  Greece  (§§  102,  114,  115, 
122,  132  (82),  138)?  8.  Enumerate  the  influences  (1)  that 
kept  the  Greeks  separate,  and  (2)  that  united  them,  during  this 
period  (§§  94,  106,  108,  117,  118). 


Summary  of  Greek  Beginnings        117 

MAP  AND  PICTURE  EXERCISES.  1.  On  an  outline  map 
of  Greece  place  (1)  the  physical  features  of  Greece,  (2)  the 
peoples  and  cities  of  the  first  epoch,  (3)  those  of  the  second 
epoch,  (4)  those  of  the  third  epoch — using,  if  possible,  different 
colored  pencils  or  inks  to  distinguish  the  epochs — (5)  then,  with 
the  general  map  of  Greece  before  you,  note  the  peoples  and 
cities  which  have  not  yet  played  a  part  in  the  history.  2. 
Compare  the  Oriental  scenes  in  Plates  1 1 1  and  V  with  the  Greek 
scene  found  in  Plate  VI  and  make  observations  from  the  point 
of  view  of  grace,  strength,  simplicity,  technical  skill,  etc.  Com- 
pare, for  further  illustration,  the  plates  inTarbell,  pp.  132,  137, 
146,  151,  156. 

SUBJECTS  FOR  WRITTEN  PAPERS.  1.  The  Olympian  Games. 
Bury,  pp.  140-142;  Grant,  Greece  in  the  Age  of  Pericles,  pp. 
26-33;  Duruy,  History  of  Greece,  II,  pp.  378-394;  Diehl,  Excur- 
sions in  Greece,  ch.  7.  2.  Greek  Oracles,  especially  Delphi. 
Bury,  pp.  159,  161;  Grant,  Greece  in  the  Age  of  Pericles,  pp. 
20-26;  Duruy,  History  of  Greece,  II,  pp.  318-330.  3.  Mycenaean 
Art.  Tarbell,  ch.  2;  Bury,  pp.  11-30;  Tsountas  and  Manatt, 
Mycenaean  Age,  chs.  5,  9.  4.  The  Story  of  the  Founding  of  a 
Greek  Colony.  Botsford,  ch.  3;  Bury,  ch.  2;  Duruy,  History  of 
Greece,  II,  pp.  165-173;  Greenidge,  pp.  36-45.  5.  Write  the 
story  of  the  "Iliad"  in  a  thousand  words.  Capps,  pp.  22-74.  6. 
Write  the  story  of  the  "Odyssey"  in  the  form  of  an  autobiography 
of  Odysseus.  Capps,  pp.  75-110.  7.  History  of  a  Tyrant; 
Cleisthenes  of  Sicyon.  Herodotus,  V,  67-69;  VI,  126-131;  or, 
Polycrates  of  Samos.  Herodotus,  III,  40-47,  54-56,  120-125. 
8.  The  Legends  of  the  Chief  Gods  of  Greece.  Grant,  Greece  in 
the  Age  of  Pericles,  pp.  12-18;  Guerber,  Myths  of  Greece  and 
Rome.  9.  Heracles  and  the  Dorian  Invasions.  Bury,  pp.  80- 
82;  Duruy,  History  of  Greece,  I,  pp.  273-281.  10.  The  Greek 
Temple.  Mahaffy,  Old  Greek  Life,  pp.  19-24;  Tarbell,  ch.  3. 


118         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 


3.— THE  FIRST  ATTEMPTS   AT   EMPIRE: 
ATHENIAN,    SPARTAN,   THEBAN 
AND   MACEDONIAN 

500-331  B.C. 

(i)  THE          142.  The  victory  of  Cyrus  over  Lydia  (§  82)  had  brought 
wrra         ^e  Ionian  cities  under  the  Persian  power.     This  authority 
PERSIA,      had  been  strengthened  and  extended  over  the  islands  by 
succeeding  rulers  until  practically  the  whole  coast  was 
subject.     The  Scythian  expedition  of  King  Darius  (§  90) 
had  been  followed  by  the  extension  of  Persian  authority 
throughout  the  northern  ^Egean,  where  a  new  satrapy 
was  formed.     It  was  clear  that  the  Great  King  would  not 
The  Menace  stop  until  all  the  Greek  peninsula  acknowledged  his  scep- 
tre.    Some  Greek  communities  were  already  reconciled 
to  this  prospect  and  had  sought  the  aid  of  Persia  in  the 
settlement  of  their  difficulties.    Among  these  were  Thebes 
and  Argos;  the  Delphic  Oracle  steadily  favored  submis- 
sion, and  even  Athens  in  the  early  days  of  Cleisthenes  had 
offered  to  do  homage.     It  seemed  that  the  lack  of  Greek 
unity,  set  over  against  the  mighty  centralized  power  of 
Persia,  would  make  successful  defence  impossible. 
The  Ionian        143.  But  events  beyond  the  control  of  the  Greek  states 
Revolt.        macje  a  conflict  unavoidable.     In  499  B.C.  the  Greek  cities 
of  Ionia  under  the  leadership  of  Miletus  rebelled  against 
the  Persians  and  sought  help  from  Sparta  and  Athens. 
The  former  refused,  but  Athens  sent  twenty  ships  and 
Eretria  five.    The  revolt,  after  lasting  six  years,  was  put 
down  in  494  B.C.     Persia  immediately  set  about  punishing 


*  +             w 

LANDS  OF  THE 

ll 

CVTHERA^> 

AEGEAN.                     ^ 

Scale  of  Miles.                                                                     ^> 

n      10     20     30    40    60                                    100                                                                       ^ 

1 

1         1  Dorian  States 
S  Ionian  States 
Aeolian  States 
i.       .1  Barbarian  States 

i 

nwlcb  20° 


The  Marathon  Campaign  119 

the  Greeks  of  the  peninsula  for  their  interference,  while  Darius 
Sparta  and  Athens,  with  a  boldness  born  rather  of  igno- 
rance and  assurance  than  of  real  knowledge,  awaited  the 
attack.  The  first  expedition  commanded  by  Mardoni- 
us,  the  king's  son-in-law,  consisted  of  a  land  army  and  a 
fleet.  It  started  southward  from  the  Persian  possessions 
on  the  north  ^Egean  through  Macedonia  in  492  B.C.  But 
the  fleet  was  shipwrecked  off  Mt.  Athos  and  the  expe- 
dition returned  in  disgrace.  A  second  attack  was  made 
in  490  B.C.  by  a  force  which  sailed  straight  across  the  sea 
bound  for  Athens.  It  consisted  of  about  20,000  men, 
chiefly  foot-soldiers.  After  stopping  at  the  island  of 
Eubcea  and  sacking  Eretria,  the  army  was  landed  on  the 
Attic  coast  in  the  hill-girt  plain  of  Marathon.  The 
Athenian  citizen  force  of  10,000  heavy  armed  men  (hop- 
lit  es),  aided  by  1,000  troops  of  the  neighboring  city  of 
Plataea,  occupied  the  heights  through  which  the  road 
descended  to  the  city.  The  ten  strategoi,  with  the  war 
archon  at  their  head,  were  uncertain  whether  to  meet  the 
Persians  there  or  to  await  them  behind  the  walls  of  Athens. 
The  Persians  were  equally  in  doubt  as  to  what  to  do. 
Finally,  after  some  days,  the  persuasions  of  one  of  the 
strategoi,  Miltiades,  were  successful  in  inducing  the 
Athenians  to  remain.  The  Persians  also  decided  to 
advance.  On  the  decisive  day  the  war  archon  handed 
over  the  chief  command  to  Miltiades.  He  extended  his 
force  until  it  equalled  the  Persian  front,  strengthening 
his  wings  at  the  expense  of  the  centre,  and  hurled  the  army 
on  a  run  against  the  advancing  Persians.  The  strategy 
was  successful,  for,  while  his  centre  was  broken,  the  wings 
were  victorious  and  closed  in  upon  the  Persians,  who  fled 
to  their  ships.  Six  thousand  four  hundred  Persians  were 


120         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

slain  and  seven  ships  were  taken;  of  the  Athenians  one 
hundred  and  ninety-two  fell.  The  rest  of  the  enemy 
escaped  upon  the  ships  and  returned  to  Asia  Minor.  Two 
days  after,  a  Spartan  force,  for  which  the  Athenians  had 
despatched  a  swift  messenger,  arrived  on  the  scene, 
significance  144.  The  victory  of  Marathon  had  no  effect  upon  the 
victory  Persian  king  beyond  making  him  more  determined  than 
ever  to  conquer  Greece.  To  him  it  was  only  a  temporary 
check;  a  small  force  had  been  defeated  in  a  somewhat 
rash  enterprise.  For  the  Greeks,  however,  the  victory 
meant  everything;  now  at  last  they  had  no  fear  of  Persia 
and  were  ready  to  meet  any  attack  however  formidable. 
To  Athens  especially  it  was  most  significant.  At  one 
bound  she  sprang  to  the  front  as  the  defender  of  Greek 
freedom.  Miltiades  shared  in  the  glory  and  became  the 
first  citizen  of  the  state.  Under  his  leadership  a  fleet  was 
sent  out  against  the  islands  under  Persian  rule. 
The  Ten  145.  The  Persians  were  delayed  ten  years  before  attack- 

Respite  mS  again.  While  Darius  was  making  his  preparations, 
the  province  of  Egypt  rebelled  (486  B.C.).  He  himself 
died  the  next  year  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Xer- 
xes. During  this  time  important  changes  were  taking 
place  in  the  political  situation  at  Athens.  A  failure  of 
Miltiades  in  his  naval  expedition  brought  him  into  dis- 
grace with  the  Athenians ;  he  died  while  under  condemna- 
tion by  the  people.  The  democratic  movement  was  greatly 
aided  by  a  change  in  the  constitution  by  which  the  archons 
Democratic  were  appointed  by  lot.  In  this  arrangement  the  chief 
AthenT  Et  administrative  officers  of  the  state  might  sometimes  be 
men  who  were  not  natural  leaders.  Hence  the  people  found 
such  leaders  in  the  strategoi  (§  139)  who  were  still  elected, 
not  chosen  by  lot.  It  was  arranged  that,  henceforth,  while 


The  New  Leaders  at  Athens          121 

nine  strategoi  were  elected  by  the  tribes,  one,  the  chief 
strategos,  should  be  elected  by  all  the  people.  He  there- 
fore became  the  chief  man  (the  demagogue,  "leader 
of  the  demos ")  in  the  state,  and  the  archons  fell  into 
obscurity. 

146.  Under  this  arrangement  two  men  came  prominently  Aristides. 
forward  with  very  different  political  ideas.  Aristides, 
a  man  of  exceptionally  high  character,  was  conservative; 
he  thought  the  safety  of  Athens  and  her  greatness  lay  in 
emphasizing  the  importance  of  her  heavy  armed  citizen 
soldiery  that  had  won  the  battle  of  Marathon.  Themis-  Themisto- 
tocles,  the  opposing  statesman,  claimed  that  there  was  no  cles" 
hope  of  deliverance  except  in  the  creation  of  a  naval  force 
which  could  meet  the  Persians  on  the  sea  and  beat  them 
off.  He  urged  also  a  commercial  policy  as  the  true  source 
of  wealth  and  progress  for  Athens.  When  in  493  B.C.  His  Policy. 
Themistocles  had  been  archon,  he  had  induced  the  Athe- 
nians to  change  their  harbor  to  the  roomy  and  protected 
bay  of  the  Piraeus,  and  now  he  urged  his  naval  policy 
more  vigorously.  He  persuaded  the  people  to  devote  the 
income  of  their  silver  mines  on  the  promontory  of  Lau- 
rium,  usually  distributed  among  the  citizens,  to  the  build- 
ing of  the  navy,  and  in  483  B.C.  a  fleet  of  at  least  one  hun- 
dred triremes  was  ready.  Opposition  was  overthrown 
by  the  "ostracism"  of  Aristides  in  482  B.C.  This  step 
was  one  of  the  most  important  ever  taken  by  Athens.  It 
marked  out  her  future  career.  Had  Aristides  won,  Athens  its  Result, 
would  have  remained  a  state  in  which  the  landholders 
and  the  people  of  property,  who  made  up  the  citizen  army, 
would  have  been  the  chief  element  in  the  state.  The  new 
policy  turned  Athens  toward  the  sea.  It  brought  into 
prominence  and  importance  the  merchants  and  trades- 


122         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

men;  the  mass  of  the  poor  and  landless  people,  hitherto 
without  influence  in  the  state,  were  made  as  necessary 
for  the  fleet  as  the  hoplites  for  the  army.  Hence,  the  policy 
was  a  step  forward  toward  true  democracy  within  the  state 
and  toward  giving  Athens  a  leading  place  in  the  greater 
world  without. 

TheExpe-  147.  The  preparations  of  Xerxes  for  the  invasion  of 
Xerxes"  Greece  were  begun  by  483  B.C.  The  plan  adopted  was 
the  same  as  that  of  492  B.C.  (§  143).  To  avoid  the  dan- 
gers of  shipwreck  off  Mt.  Athos  a  canal  was  cut  through 
the  peninsula  on  which  it  stood.  Bridges  were  thrown 
across  the  streams  and  magazines  of  stores  were  estab- 
lished. An  army  and  a  fleet,  which  represented  the  full 
strength  of  the  Empire,  were  collected.  Xerxes  himself 
took  the  command.  The  Greeks  estimated  the  total  size 
of  the  army  at  something  short  of  two  millions.  A  very 
conservative  estimate  makes  the  number  of  first-class  fight- 
ing men,  exclusive  of  camp-followers,  about  100,000.  The 
fleet  numbered  about  a  thousand  ships,  great  and  small. 
In  the  spring  of  481  B.C.  the  Hellespont  was  crossed,  and, 
by  July,  the  fleet  and  the  army  were  moving  southward 
to  the  borders  of  Thessaly. 

Dark  out-        148.  The  outlook  for  the  Greeks  was  dark.     To  the 

Greeks' the  demand  for  submission  which  Xerxes  had  made,  through 

heralds  sent  up  and  down  the  land,  a  number  of  states  had 

yielded.   The  Thessalian  nobles,  Thebes  and  the  Boeotian 

cities  under  her  influence,  Argos  and  some  lesser  tribes, 

were  either  openly  or  secretly  on  the  Persian  side.     The 

oracle  of  Delphi  had  lost  all  hope  and  its  utterances  in 

response  to  anxious  inquiries  from  the  different  states 

Union  for     were  gloomy  and  discouraging.     A  council  of  the  states 

Resistance.    that  propOsed  to  offer  resistance  met  at  Corinth.    The 


Measures  for  Defence  against  Persia    123 

Peloponnesian  league  under  Sparta's  headship  was  nat- 
urally the  chief  power;  Athens  and  other  states  loyally 
accepted  her  leadership.  The  council  agreed  that  in  the 
face  of  the  pressing  danger  all  feuds  between  Greek  states 
should  cease  and  a  general  invitation  was  extended  to  all 
to  unite  for  defence.  A  special  request  for  help  was  sent 
to  Gelon,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  who  ruled  over  the  cities 
of  Sicily  and  possessed  military  resources  beyond  those 
of  any  other  state  in  the  Greek  world.  But  Xerxes  had 
made  an  alliance  with  Carthage  (§  58),  whereby  she  was 
to  attack  the  Greeks  of  Sicily.  Gelon  was,  therefore,  un- 
able to  render  assistance  even  if  he  had  been  willing  to  do 
so.  The  plan  of  campaign  proposed  by  Themistocles  The  Plan, 
was  adopted;  it  was  simple  and  masterly.  On  land, 
where  the  Persian  army  was  so  much  larger,  a  battle  was 
to  be  avoided  as  long  as  possible ;  a  naval  battle  was  to  be 
sought  as  soon  as  possible,  for  on  the  sea  the  opposing 
forces  were  more  nearly  equal.  It  was  thought  that,  if 
the  Persian  fleet  were  destroyed,  the  army  of  the  Great 
King  would  not  be  able  to  remain  in  Greece.  Having 
made  these  preparations,  full  of  heroic  courage  and  un- 
daunted purpose,  the  representatives  of  the  various  states 
separated  and  the  conflict  began. 

149.  In  accordance  with  the  plan,  a  small  force  was 
sent  forward  to  block  the  enemy's  advance  at  the  northern 
mountain  border  of  Thessaly.  It  was  found,  however, 
that  there  were  too  many  passes  through  the  mountains 
to  make  a  defence  possible  at  this  point,  and,  abandoning 
Thessaly,  the  Greek  force  took  its  stand  on  the  heights 
south  of  the  Thessalian  plain.  Here  the  narrow  and  easily 
defended  pass  of  Thermopylae  forms  the  only  entrance  Ther- 
into  middle  Greece.  The  Greeks  were  under  the  com-  mopylse- 


124         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

mand  of  the  Spartan  king  Leonidas  and  consisted  of 
about  seven  thousand  men,  the  kernel  of  which  was  a 
corps  of  three  hundred  Spartans.  Xerxes  occupied  Thes- 
saly  without  opposition,  and  by  August,  480  B.C.,  advanced 
to  Thermopylae  to  force  the  pass.  The  battle  raged  for 
two  days,  the  flower  of  the  Persians  attacking  the  Greeks 
in  the  narrow  defile  in  vain.  On  the  third  day,  a  troop 
was  sent  around  on  the  heights  above  the  pass,  and  the 
battle  was  renewed  from  front  and  rear.  Retreat  had 
been  possible  earlier  and  the  bulk  of  the  defenders  had 
retired,  but  Leonidas  and  his  Spartans  remained  and  at 
last  perished,  overpowered  by  numbers.  After  the  war 
was  over,  a  monument  was  raised  upon  the  hillock  where 
the  last  stand  was  made,  a  lion  carved  in  stone  with  the 
inscription: 

Stranger,  report  this  word,  we  pray,  to  the  Spartans,  that  lying 
here  in  this  spot  we  remain,  faithfully  keeping  their  laws. 

The  Greek  ISO.  Meanwhile  the  Persian  fleet,  sailing  southward, 
Fleet*  had  encountered  a  storm  which  destroyed  some  four 
hundred  ships.  The  remainder,  still  a  formidable  host, 
advanced  to  the  Pagasaean  gulf.  The  Greek  fleet  was 
gathered  at  Artemisium  on  the  north  of  Eubcea.  Sev- 
eral encounters  took  place  without  decisive  result,  when 
the  news  of  Thermopylae  decided  the  Greeks  to  withdraw 
to  the  Saronic  gulf.  The  results  thus  far  were  distinctly 
unfavorable  to  the  Greeks.  The  defeat  of  Thermopylae 
opened  middle  Greece  to  the  Persians,  while  the  Greek 
fleet  had  not  gained  any  compensating  advantage.  The 
decisive  struggle  still  to  come  was  transferred  now  to  the 
very  heart  of  the  peninsula. 
151.  Xerxes  moved  down  into  Bceotia  and  took  posses* 


Battle  of  Salamis 


125 


sion  of  the  whole  middle  region.  The  Greeks,  still  pursu- 
ing their  original  plan,  offered  no  resistance,  but  awaited 
the  Persians  at  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  where  they  built  a 
wall  from  one  side  to  the  other  and  stationed  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  army  under  the  command  of  Cleombrotus  of  Sparta, 
brother  of  Leonidas.  Athens,  therefore,  was  quite  un- 


protected, and  measures  were  immediately  taken  for  aban- 
doning the  country  and  transporting  the  inhabitants  to 
Salamis,  ^Egina  and  the  Peloponnesus.  Soon  the  Per- 
sians came  down  and  burned  the  city.  The  Greek  fleet 
of  about  three  hundred  ships  was  now  drawn  up  between 
Salamis  and  the  Attic  shore.  There  was  great  uncertainty 
among  the  commanders  whether  to  fight  the  oncoming 
Persian  fleet  then  and  there,  or  to  retreat  to  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  shore  in  order  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  army. 


SalamiE 


126         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

Themistocles,  who  desired  a  battle  where  the  Greeks  then 
were,  sent  a  messenger  to  Xerxes  to  warn  him  of  the  in- 
tended flight  of  the  Greeks.  The  Persian  king  immedi- 
ately sent  two  hundred  Egyptian  vessels  to  block  up  the 
western  outlets,  while  the  main  fleet  was  stationed  in  front 
of  the  Greeks  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  island.  When 
the  news  was  brought  by  Aristides,  who  had  been  recalled 
from  exile,  that  the  western  passage  was  occupied,  the 
Greeks  saw  themselves  forced  to  give  battle.  It  was  well 
for  them  that  the  battle  was  fought  here,  for,  in  the  narrow 
straits,  their  lighter  ships  and  smaller  numbers  counted 
for  much  more,  while  the  larger  Persian  fleet  was  crowded 
and  hampered.  About  the  28th  of  September,  480  B.C., 
the  fight  began  at  break  of  day,  and  by  night  the  Persians 
were  completely  beaten.  Xerxes,  whose  throne  had  been 
set  up  on  the  slope  of  Mt.  ./Egaleos,  witnessed  the  dis- 
comfiture of  his  navy.  The  next  morning  the  remaining 
ships  bore  away  to  the  eastward  and  disappeared. 
Effect  of  152.  Salamis  was  the  first  of  the  battles  with  Persia 
LC  Battle.  tjiat  can  pr0periv  be  caneci  a  decisive  victory.  Its  conse- 
quences appeared  at  once.  The  Greeks  were  now  masters 
of  the  sea.  The  Persian  army,  without  the  support  of  a 
fleet,  and  in  an  enemy's  country,  must  depend  upon  itself 
for  support  and  success.  A  defeat  would  be  ruin.  More- 
over, should  the  Greeks  sail  to  the  Hellespont,  they  could 
cut  Xerxes's  communications  with  his  own  land,  stir  up 
the  Ionian  cities  to  rebellion  and  force  the  Persian  army  to 
return  home.  That  was  precisely  what  Themistocles  de- 
sired the  fleet  to  do  immediately  after  the  battle,  but  the 
other  commanders  were  unwilling  to  venture  so  far  away 
from  home.  Xerxes  was  not  slow  in  grasping  the  situation. 
He  decided  to  go  back  at  once  to  Asia,  leaving  Mardonius 


The  Battle  of  Platcea  127 

with  the  bulk  of  the  army  to  push  forward  the  campaign 
next  year. 

153.  The  Persian  army  withdrew  from  Attica  and  went 
into  winter  quarters  in  Bceotia.  The  Athenians  returned 
to  their  fields  and  rebuilt  their  homes.  As  spring  (479 
B.C.)  came  on,  however,  it  was  clear  that  unless  the  Pelo- 
ponnesians  advanced  beyond  the  isthmus,  Attica  would 
again  be  laid  waste  by  the  Persians.  But,  in  spite  of  the 
appeals  of  the  Athenians,  the  Spartans  failed  to  move,  and 
Athens  had  again  to  be  abandoned.  Only  the  threat  of 
the  Athenians  that  they  would  make  peace  with  Mardo- 
nius,  who  had  given  them  all  kinds  of  promises,  forced  the 
advance  of  the  Peloponnesians.  As  they  came  out  of  the 
isthmus,  the  Persians  retired  from  Attica  and  took  up  a 
position  in  the  vicinity  of  Platsea.  Mardonius  was  said 
to  have  an  army  of  three  hundred  thousand  men,  well  or- 
ganized and  equipped,  and  might  reasonably  hope  for 
victory  over  the  Greeks.  They  were  numbered  at  about 
one  hundred  thousand  men,  drawn  from  the  various  Pelo- 
ponnesian  states  and  from  Athens,  under  the  command 
of  Pausanias,  the  Spartan.  The  two  opponents  manoeu- 
vred for  some  days  before  Plataea,  the  Persian  hoping 
that  the  C  reeks  would  fall  into  quarrels  among  themselves 
or  be  unable  to  obtain  provisions  for  so  great  a  host. 
Finally,  however,  having  caught  Pausanias  in  the  midst 
of  a  movement  to  change  his  base  of  operations,  Mardo- 
nius hurled  his  finest  troops  upon  the  Spartan  force.  But 
the  Spartans  maintained  their  steadiness  and  discipline 
in  the  face  of  the  enemy  until  ordered  to  charge.  As  at 
Marathon,  so  here,  the  onset  of  the  hoplites  was  irre- 
sistible. They  tore  the  opposing  Persian  force  in  pieces; 
Mardonius  was  killed;  the  Persian  camp  stormed.  The 


128         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

Persian  general  Artabazus  succeeded  in  getting  away  into 
Asia  with  less  than  a  fifth  of  the  army.  Thus,  as  He- 
rodotus said,  "was  gained  by  Pausanias  the  most  famous 
victory  of  all  those  about  which  we  have  knowledge." 
The  Persians  disappeared  from  Greek  territory,  never 
again  to  enter  it. 

154.  During  these  years  two  other  battles  were  fought 
which  completed  the  discomfiture  of  the  Persians.  In 
the  west,  Gelon  of  Syracuse  (§  148),  who  was  attacked 
by  the  Carthaginians  in  alliance  with  Persia,  defeated 

Himera.  them  decisively  in  the  battle  of  Himera  (480  B.C.),  said 
to  have  been  fought  on  the  very  day  of  Salamis.  The 
Greek  fleet,  which  had  been  inactive  since  the  victory  of 
Salamis,  sailed  in  479  B.C.  over  to  Asia  Minor,  where  the 
remnant  of  the  Persian  fleet  was  protecting  the  coast. 
On  the  approach  of  the  Greeks  the  enemy's  fleet  was 
drawn  up  under  protection  of  the  army,  on  the  shore  of 

Mycaie.  the  promontory  of  Mycale.  Here  the  Greeks  attacked 
them  and  won  a  complete  victory  (479  B.C.)  and  thus 
gained  control  of  the  Ionian  coast.  Not  a  Persian  ship 
was  to  be  found  on  the  ^Egean  sea.  After  capturing  the 
city  of  Sestos,  one  of  the  keys  to  the  Hellespont,  the  fleet 
returned  to  Greece. 

Reasons  155.  Thus  closed  the  critical  years  which  resulted  in 

s°rc^ersesek  warding  off  the  Persian  attack  and  triumphantly  defend- 
ing the  independence  of  Greece.  How  it  was  all  achieved, 
the  Greeks  themselves  hardly  knew.  We  see  that  (i)  the 
Greek  infantry  with  its  long  spears  was  more  than  a  match 
for  the  Persian  foot-soldiers  with  their  bows,  (2)  the  sea- 
manship of  the  Greeks  was  better  than  that  of  the  Persians, 
while  (3)  the  strongest  part  of  the  Persian  army,  the  cav- 
alry, had  no  chance  in  the  narrow  valleys  and  mountain- 


Effect  of  the  Greek  Victories         129 

passes  of  Greece.  (4)  The  union  of  the  Greeks,  limited 
and  defective  as  it  was,  and  (5)  the  consummate  statesman- 
ship of  Themistocles,  in  creating  and  enlarging  the  navy 
of  Athens  and  emphasizing  the  importance  of  the  control 
of  the  sea,  had  no  small  part  in  securing  victory. 

156.  The  result  of  the  conflict  may  be  said  to  have  been  Twofold 
twofold.     First,  it  emphasized  and  glorified  all  those  ele-   **sult  ° 
ments  of  Greek  life  which  the  past  centuries  had  been  struggles, 
building  up — the  consciousness  of   Greek  unity  in  the 

face  of  the  outside  world,  the  sentiments  of  independence, 
of  patriotism  and  of  freedom  that  had  come  to  be  the  life 
of  every  Greek  community.  Second,  it  made  Greece  a 
world-power,  transferred  political  supremacy  from  the 
east  to  the  west  and  created  among  the  leading  Greek 
states  aspirations  after  wider  political  influence  and  au- 
thority for  which  opportunities  opened  on  every  side. 

157.  Two  poets  of  the  time  revealed  this  sense  of  the  The  Liter- 
power  and  glory  of  victorious  Greece.     Pindar,  of  Bceotia  ary  Echo' 
(about  522-448  B.C.),  mightiest  of  the  Lyric  poets  (§  120), 
gained  his  chief  fame  by  his  Odes,  glorifying  the  victors  Pindar, 
in  the  national  games  (§  118).     In  them  he  celebrated 

all  those  characteristic  qualities  which  the  Greek  revealed 
in  the  Persian  struggle — his  manly  vigor,  his  love  of  beauty, 
his  deep  piety,  his  heroic  temper,  his  joy  in  his  splendid 
past,  his  freedom  and  moral  independence,  his  serene 
faith  in  the  higher  powers,  untroubled  by  doubt  or  fear. 
^schylus  (about  525-456  B.C.),  the  tragedian  of  Ath- 
ens, himself  fought  at  Marathon  and  Salamis,  and  cele- 
brated the  victories  in  his  Persa,  a  tragedy  brought  out 
in  472  B.C.,  in  which  he  depicts  the  doom  of  the  arrogant 
king  who  sets  himself  up  against  the  Almighty.  JEs-  ^schyius. 
chylus  was  the  real  founder  of  tragedy;  he  introduced 


130        The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

the  novelty  of  having  two  actors  and  a  chorus,  thus  se 
curing  effective  dramatic  action.  In  his  plays  he  uses 
the  mythical  and  legendary  tales  of  the  heroes  of  old; 
Prometheus,  Agamemnon,  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  are 
some  of  his  titles.  He  is  the  poet-preacher  of  righteous- 
ness, of  the  punishment  of  pride,  of  the  supremacy  of 
moral  law  over  all  beings,  divine  and  human,  of  the  inevi- 
table payment  for  sin  wherever  committed.  He  moves 
in  a  superhuman  world  of  grand,  heroic,  sinful,  suffering 
beings  over  whom  hangs  the  penalty  of  violated  right  and 
truth.  The  gods,  who  are  jealous  of  the  overweening 
might  of  the  Great  King  and  have  brought  him  to  ruin,  are 
on  the  watch  to  avenge  themselves  upon  such  a  spirit 
everywhere.  So  he  warned,  while  he  uplifted,  the  souls 
of  his  generation,  and  spoke  words  that  live  forever. 
The  Birth  158.  We  have  seen  that  the  Greek  states  assumed  new 
ilperili-  political  importance  in  the  world  as  the  result  of  their 
ism.  victory.  This  was  certain  to  transform  Greek  poli- 

tics. Not  the  petty  Greek  communities,  but  only  the 
leaders  could  enter  into  the  race  for  world-power.  In 
the  struggle  of  these  leaders  with  each  other  could  Greek 
unity  be  preserved  or  Greek  independence  be  main- 
tained ?  These  were  the  problems  that  sprang  up  when 
the  fight  for  freedom  from  Persian  supremacy  was  won. 
Thus  it  came  to  pass  that  Greek  Imperialism  was  the 
child  of  the  Persian  Wars. 

OUTLINE  FOR  REVIEW 
II.  THE  GREEK  EMPIRES 

I.  The  Beginnings  of  Greece  and  its  Expansion. 

a.  THE  FIRST  ATTEMPTS  AT  EMPIRE. 

(a)  The  Wars  with  Persia:  What  led  up  to  them  (the  advance  of 
Persia,  the  Ionian  Revolt)— the  various  expeditions  (the  first;  the 


The  Else  of  Athens  131 

second,  Marathon  and  its  effect;  the  ten  years,  new  men  and 
new  policies  at  Athens;  the  expedition  of  Xerxes,  the  attitude  of 
Greece,  the  battles  east  and  west) — the  outcome — literature — 
imperialism. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  are  the  following  noted: 
Persepolis,  Miletus,  Marathon,  Laurium,  Mt.  Athos,  Helles- 
pont, Plataea,  Mycale,  Himera?  2.  Who  were  Mardonius, 
Cyrus,  ^schylus,  Leonidas,  Gelon,  Aristides?  3.  What  is 
meant  by  tragedy,  strategos,  lyric  poetry,  mythical,  legendary, 
imperialism,  ostracism? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  the  attitude  of  the 
Lydians  and  the  Persians  toward  the  Ionian  cities  (§  115).  2. 
Compare  the  growth  of  the  Persian  Empire  (§§  81,  82,  87,  90) 
with  that  of  the  Greek  states.  3.  Compare  the  relation  of 
the  Persian  armies  to  the  Persian  government  (§  87)  with 
that  of  the  Greek  armies  toward  their  governments.  4.  Plan 
an  attack  on  Greece  by  Persia  and  the  Greek  means  of  resist- 
ance to  the  attack.  5.  Read  Browning's  "Echetlos"  as  an 
interpretation  of  Greek  spirit. 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  The 
Ionian  Revolt.  Bury,  pp.  241-247;  Morey,  pp.  174-176;  Bots- 
ford,  pp.  110-115;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  111-123.  2.  TheCampaign 
of  Marathon.  Bury,  pp.  247-257;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  128-136; 
Zimmern,  pp.  141-147.  3.  Themistocles  and  His  Policy.  Plu- 
tarch, Life  of  Themistocles;  Bury,  pp.  263,  264;  Botsford,  pp. 
124-126;  Morey,  pp.  181-184;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  138-142. 
4.  The  Campaign  of  Xerxes.  Bury,  pp.  265-296;  Botsford, 
pp.  127-136;  Morey,  pp.  184-192;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  142-171; 
Zimmern,  pp.  148-191.  5.  Incidents  of  the  Battle  of  Salamis. 
Herodotus,  VIII,  §§  40-42,  49-96.  6.  v£schylus.  Capps,  ch. 
8;  Jebb,  pp.  73-83;  Murray,  pp.  109-116.  7.  Sicily  in  the 
Persian  Wars.  Bury,  pp.  296-304;  Botsford,  pp.  136-139. 

159.  Out  of  the  struggle  against  the  Persian  invaders  w  THE 
two  Greek  powers  came  forth  to  reap  the  fruits  of  victory.  ATHENS 
Sparta,  as  the  head  of  the  Peloponnesian  League,  had  J°™A~L 
been  officially  recognized  as  the  leader  in  the  conflict;  POWER. 
but  the  heroic,  determined  and  far-sighted  activities  of 


132         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 


Persia 
Driven 
from  the 


The  Delian 
Confeder- 
acy 
Formed. 


Athens  during  the  wars  had  given  her  a  foremost  place 
in  the  estimation  of  all  patriotic  Greeks.  Hence,  the  com- 
ing years  reveal  her  as  the  rival  of  Sparta  for  the  headship 
among  the  Greek  states. 

Herodotus  testifies  to  the  service  of  Athens  in  the  great  struggle 
as  follows:  "If  a  man  should  now  say  that  the  Athenians  were  the 
saviors  of  Greece,  he  would  not  exceed  the  truth.  For  they  truly 
held  the  scales;  and  whichever  side  they  espoused  must  have  carried 
the  day.  They,  too,  it  was,  who,  when  they  had  determined  to  main- 
tain the  freedom  of  Greece,  roused  up  that  portion  of  the  Greek 
nation  which  had  not  gone  over  to  the  Medes;  and  so  next  to  the 
gods,  they  repulsed  the  invaden" 

160.  The  first  task  which  awaited  the  victors  was  to 
drive  the  Persians  out  of  the  yEgean  sea  and  deliver  the 
Asiatic  Greeks  from  Persian  domination.     The   Greek 
fleet  under  the  Spartan  king  Pausanias  (§  153)  undertook 
this  task.     But  the  arrogance  of  the  victor  of  Plataea 
and  the  indifference  of  the  ruling  powers  at  Sparta  pro- 
voked a  reaction  which  resulted  in  the  transference  of 
the  leadership  to  the  Athenians  under  Aristides  (§  146). 
The  work  was  brilliantly  accomplished.     With  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  isolated  cities,  the  Greek  settlements  on 
the  entire  ^Egean  coast  and  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean 
as  far  as  Cyprus  were  made  free. 

161.  It  was  clear,  however,  that  this  freedom  could 
be  maintained  only  by  presenting  a  united  front  to  the 
enemy.     Hence,  a  new  league  sprang  into  being  under 
the  headship  of  Athens- — a  league  of  the  ^Egean  cities. 
Large  and  small  alike,  they  banded  together  to  furnish 
a  fleet  for  defence  and  offence  against  Persia  (475  B.C.). 
Those  who  were  unable  or  unwilling  to  furnish  ships, 
contributed  yearly  a  sum  of  money.     The  amount  of  the 


iJ 


- 


The  Delian  Confederacy  133 

contribution  in  each  case  was  left  to  Aristides  to  deter- 
mine, according  to  his  judgment  of  the  resources  of  each 
city.  The  pre-eminence  of  Athens  was  also  recognized 
by  giving  her  the  command  of  the  united  fleet  and  by  ar- 
ranging that  the  yearly  contributions  should  be  collected 
by  her.  The  total  sum  assessed  upon  the  cities  amounted 
to  four  hundred  and  sixty  talents.  The  money  was  placed  in 
the  sanctuary  of  Apollo  on  the  island  of  Delos.  There  the 
representatives  of  the  various  cities  met  to  deliberate  upon 
common  interests.  Hence  the  league  received  the  name 
of  the  Delian  Confederacy. 

162.  Meanwhile  the  Athenians  at  home  under  the  guid-  Athens 
ance  of  Themistocles  were  making  rapid  strides  forward. 

He  saw  clearly  into  the  political  situation — the  opportunity 
for  Athens  to  take  its  place  at  the  head  of  the  Greek  world. 
If  Aristides  was  the  active  agent  of  the  advance  of  the  city 
abroad,  he  supplied  the  vital  energy  for  the  forward  move- 
ment. Under  his  inspiration  Athens  rose  again  from  her 
ruins  larger  than  before  and  was  surrounded  by  a  strong 
wall.  The  Piraeus,  the  port  of  Athens,  was  fortified  and 
its  harbors  protected  by  moles.  Some  years  after  (458 
B.C.),  the  city  and  the  port  were  joined  by  long  walls,  a 
device  which  freed  Athens  from  fear  of  assault  by  land 
and  gave  her  unhindered  access  to  the  sea.  Thus  she 
became  independent  of  Spartan  interference  and  was  able 
to  direct  all  her  energies  to  establishing  her  maritime 
supremacy. 

163.  The  revival  and  extension  of  Greek  commerce  The  New 
assisted  in  bringing  about  Athenian  predominance.    With  merciai 
the  driving  of  the  Persians  from  the  ^Egean  and — it  might  situation, 
almost   be    added — from   the    Mediterranean,    sea-trade 

fell  into  Greek  hands.     It  was  natural  that  the  bulk  of 


134         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

this  trade  should  centre  about  Athens.  The  cities  of  the 
Asia  Minor  coast  were  cut  off  from  trading  with  the  in- 
terior because  of  the  hostility  of  Persia.  The  other  towns 
on  the  /Egean  were  small.  All  were  inclined  to  follow 
the  lead  of  Athens  in  commercial  as  in  political  matters. 
Favors  Thus  the  immense  increase  of  Greek  commerce  contrib- 
Athens.  ute(j  to  ker  upbuilding.  She  became  the  chief  mart  where 
ships  gathered  from  the  entire  Greek  world.  The  only 
formidable  rival  was  Corinth,  whose  connections  with 
the  west  were  many  and  close.  Athens's  commercial  su- 
premacy naturally  opened  the  way  for  her  political  pre- 
Poiiticai  dominance.  She  made  many  commercial  treaties  with 
Athens^  ^er  alhes,  an  important  condition  of  which  was  that  all 
the  con-  difficulties  rising  out  of  trade  should  be  adjusted  in  the 
Athenian  law-courts  in  accordance  with  Athenian  law. 
From  this  it  was  natural  to  go  on  to  require  that  all  disa- 
greements should  follow  the  same  course,  until  finally 
the  majority  of  the  cases  at  law  among  the  members  of 
the  League  were  tried  at  Athens.  The  advantages  of 
this  system  were  great.  One  code,  and  that  the  best  in 
all  Greece,  was  extended  over  many  communities  whose 
sense  of  justice  had  not  become  so  fine  and  high  as  that 
of  Athens.  Yet  it  meant  for  them  the  giving  up  to  Athens 
of  one  of  the  sovereign  powers  of  the  state — the  adminis- 
tration of  justice — and  placed  Athens  in  a  position  in 
which  she  became  greater  than  a  mere  ally. 

Develop-          164.  Other  things  tended  to  push  her  forward.    The 

Athens*       Persians  were  not  able  to  make  head  against  so  formidable 

into  an        a  league  and  ceased  to  attempt  opposition.     Hence,  as 

state.          fear  of  their  attacks  lessened,  the  allies  began  to  feel  that 

union  for  defence  against  them  was  not  so  necessary.    The 

yearly  contributions  were  made  more  grudgingly.     Some 


Cimon  f  Leader  at  Athens  135 

cities  were  even  desirous  of  withdrawing.  But  Athens 
held  rightly  that  as  the  union  of  states  had  brought  about 
this  condition  of  safety,  so  only  a  continuance  of  the  union 
could  maintain  it;  hence,  that  states  delinquent  in  their 
contributions  should  be  forced  to  pay  and  those  who  at- 
tempted to  withdraw  should  be  compelled  to  remain. 
Thus,  when  Naxos  rebelled  in  466  B.C.  and  Thasos  in 
465  B.C.,  they  were  reduced  to  subjection  by  the  Athenian 
fleet.  The  Delian  League  was  fast  becoming  an  Athenian 
Imperial  State. 

165.  Naturally,  Sparta  had  regarded  the  rise  of  Athens  Fail  of 
with  disfavor,  and  recognizing  Themistocles  as  its  author,  Pausam 
desired  his  downfall.    Through  his  diplomacy  her  opposi- 
tion to  the  building  of  the  fortifications  of  Athens  (§  162) 
had  amounted  to  nothing.     She  had  been  unable  to  make 
much  headway  because  of  troubles  at  home  occasioned 
by  the  ambition  of  King  Pausanias.     He  recklessly  aimed 
at  making  himself  lord  of  Sparta  and  thereby  of  all  Greece. 
He  even  entered  into  treasonable  correspondence  with  the 
Persians  and  intrigued  with  the  Helots  (§  132)  to  induce 
them  to  rebel.     But  now  at  Athens  the  influence  of  The- 
mistocles began  to  wane  before  that  of  Cimon,  the  son 
of  Miltiades,  the  hero  of  Marathon.    He  was  a  high-born, 
rich,  genial,  successful  general  who  had  succeeded  Aris- 
tides  in  the  command  of  the  Athenian  fleet.     He  was  no  Rise  of 
far-seeing  statesman  like  Themistocles,  but,  for  that  very  Cimon' 
reason,  was  nearer  the  majority  who  failed  to  follow  the 
greater  leader  in  his  radical  plans  for  Athenian  empire. 
Cimon's  policy  was  conservative.     He  favored  continuing 
war  on  Persia  and  renewing  friendship  with  Sparta.     In  Fail  of 
the  end  Themistocles  was  ostracized  (471  B.C.).     Later, 
when  the  Spartans  got  rid  of  their  difficulties  with  Pausa- 


136         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

nias  by  putting  him  to  death,  they  claimed  to  find  evidence 
in  his  papers  that  Themistocles  had  joined  in  his  treason- 
able plans.     The  exile  was  forced  to  find  refuge  with  the 
cimon,        Persians,  where  he  died  some  years  after.    Cimon's  leader- 
Athens  °f     sniP  °f  Athens  was  marked  by  a  splendid  victory  over  the 
Persians  at  the  Eurymedon  (466  B.C.)  and  by  his  bring- 
ing aid  to  the  Spartans  in  their  struggles  with  the  rebellious 
Helots  of  Messenia.     But  the  Spartans  declined  his  help 
and  he  returned  in  disgrace. 

Democracy  166.  Another  cause  of  Sparta's  suspicion  of  Athens, 
th^Greek1  besides  that  occasioned  by  her  sudden  rise  to  power,  was 
world.  the  influence  of  her  democratic  constitution.  Her  vigor 
and  heroism  in  the  Persian  struggle  had  rightly  been  at- 
tributed to  her  democratic  spirit,  and,  along  with  her  ad- 
vancement, democratic  ideas  and  institutions  had  begun 
to  be  popular  elsewhere.  When  the  Ionian  cities  were 
freed  from  the  Persian  yoke,  they  set  up  democratic  gov- 
ernments. The  impulse  spread  to  the  Peloponnesus,  where 
Argos,  Arcadia  and  Elis  became  democratic.  In  the  far 
west  the  cities  of  Sicily  followed  the  same  example;  Syra- 
cuse established  a  democracy  on  the  death  of  the  tyrant 
Hiero  (467  B.C.),  the  successor  of  Gelon  (§  154).  In  al- 
most every  city  of  Greece,  even  in  aristocratic  states  like 
those  of  Bceotia,  a  democratic  party  appeared  which  fol- 
lowed in  the  footsteps  of  Athens  and  looked  to  her  for 
support.  It  was  not  strange  that  Sparta,  which  had  been 
steadily  growing  more  aristocratic  as  her  pure-blooded 
Spartan  citizens  grew  fewer  and  fewer  in  number,  should 
view  this  state  of  things  with  increasing  uneasiness,  and 
take  a  firmer  stand  in  favor  of  oligarchy  against  democracy 
in  general,  and  especially  against  Athens,  its  exemplar. 
167.  During  these  years  the  government  at  Athens 


Advancing  Democracy  at  Athens       137 

was  coming  more  and  more  into  the  hands  of  the  people.  Growth  of 
The  provisions  of  the  constitutions,  of  Solon  and  Cleis-  ^^^7 
thenes  (§§  137,  139)  were  broadened  or  changed  in  their 
interest.     But  the  Council  of  the  Areopagus  (§  134),  by 
its  judicial  and  legal  powers,  was  a  check  to  their  power 
in  Public  Assembly  and  Law- Courts.     Its  organization 
out  of  a  special  class  of  ex-officials  and  its  self-perpetuating 
character  were  likewise  inconsistent  with  popular  govern- 
ment.    Hence,  new  leaders  of  the  democracy,  Ephialtes 
and  Pericles,  induced   the  people  to  pass  a  law  which  Rise  of 
deprived  it  of  these  powers  (462  B.C.).    This  was  in  direct  P 
opposition  to  the  policy  of  the  conservatives  under  Cimon,  Fail  of 
and  the  victory  of  the  Democracy,  aided  by  the  failure  of  c 
his  Spartan  policy  (§  165),  was  followed  by  his  ostracism 
(467  B.C.).     The  powers  of  the  Areopagus  were  divided 
between  the  Boule  (§  137),  the  Heliaea  (§  137)  and  the 
Public  Assembly.     A  little  later,  in  457  B.C.,  the  office  of 
archon  was  thrown  open  to  the  less  wealthy  citizens,  the 
Zeugitae  (§  137).     It  became  the  fashion  to  have  a  large  The 
part  of  the  public  business  done  or  supervised  by  Boards  Democ- 
of  citizens.     Thus  there  was  the  Board  of  Education,  of  racy- 
Finance,  of  Dockyards,  of  Religion.     The  officials  were 
held  to  a  very  strict  reckoning.     A  Board  of    Auditors 
supervised  all  their  accounts. 

168.  In  general,  the  government  was  undertaken  by  the  The 
citizens  themselves  in  Public  Assembly  (Ecclesia).  This 
Ecclesia  had  certain  limitations  upon  its  activity.  All 
measures,  whether  laws  or  administrative  acts,  must  first 
pass  through  the  Boule  and,  by  a  committee  of  the 
Boule,  be  presented  to  the  Ecclesia.  All  laws  must  be 
finally  approved  by  the  Heliaea.  Moreover,  to  keep  citi- 
zens from  offering  too  many  new  laws,  the  regulation  was 


138         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

made  that  anyone  who  proposed  a  new  law  or  decree  was 
liable  to  prosecution,  if  it  was  found  to  be  contrary  to  ex- 
isting law.  Yet,  even  with  all  these  limitations,  the  power 
of  the  Ecclesia,  both  in  its  direct  administrative  activity 
and  its  indirect  authority  over  all  officials,  was  very  great. 
It  declared  war,  made  peace,  controlled  finance,  directed 
commerce,  maintained  and  guarded  religion,  determined 
home  and  foreign  policy. 

The  169.  As  the  citizens  in  Public  Assembly  governed  the 

Athenian  stat^  ^  [n  the  Law_courts  Or  Heliaea  they  administered 
courts.  justice  directly.  All  cases,  whether  civil  or  criminal,  came 
before  them.  For  practical  work  the  whole  body  was 
divided  into  sections  called  dicasteries,  each  numbering 
from  two  hundred  to  one  thousand  citizens  or  even  more. 
Those  who  came  before  the  court  pleaded  their  cause 
themselves.  No  lawyers  were  permitted  to  speak,  though 
soon  a  class  of  men  appeared  who  wrote  speeches  for  de- 
livery by  the  pleaders.  As  the  same  citizens  acted  as 
judges  and  legislators,  it  was  presumed  that  they  knew 
the  law  and  passed  judgment  according  to  it.  And  though 
the  dangers  of  prejudice  and  ignorance  were  not  always 
avoided,  the  legal  system  and  the  judicial  fairness  of  the 
law-courts  of  Athens  were  superior  to  those  anywhere  else 
in  the  world. 

The  170.  This  active  conduct  of  the  state  by  its  citizens 

meant  that  all  had  a  part  in  it.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
each  man  was  brought  into  the  service  of  the  state  as  an 
official  at  least  once  in  sixteen  years,  besides  taking  part  in 
the  Law-Courts  and  the  Ecclesia.  Much  time  was  re- 
quired, and  this  could  be  spared  with  difficulty  from  daily 
work.  Hence,  pay  for  certain  kinds  of  state  service  was 
introduced.  Members  of  the  Boule  received  a  drachma 


Leadership  of  the  Democracy          189 

— twenty  cents — a  day,  and  the  jurors  in  the  Heliaea  two 
obols — six  cents — a  day.*  Attendance  at  the  Assembly 
was  not  paid  nor  did  the  higher  officials  receive,  salary. 

171.  But  who  was  to  lead  the  citizens  in  their  Public  The 
Assembly  and  suggest  lines  of  policy  and  courses  of  action  ?  Strateg08g 
In  theory  this  was  the  privilege  of  any  citizen.  But  the 
Athenians  had  not  developed  that  confidence  in  them- 
selves as  individuals,  nor  had  they  entirely  lost  that  de- 
pendence upon  the  aristocratic  families,  which  would 
permit  them  to  turn  their  theory  into  practice.  We  have 
already  seen  that  the  strategoi  occupied  the  most  honor- 
able positions  in  the  state  (§  145)  and  that  the  chief  strat- 
egos  was  elected  by  the  Public  Assembly.  He  was  their 
best  man  and  as  such  became  their  leader  and  took  the 
position  of  "demagogue."  This  position  was  entirely  un- 
official. It  gave  him  no  legal  power.  He  led  the  people 
because  he  was  able  to  persuade  them  that  his  plans  and 
policy  were  the  best.  Themistocles,  Aristides  and  Cimon 
are  examples  of  such  leadership.  And  at  this  time  came 
forward  another  who,  by  virtue  of  his  descent,  personality 
and  character,  guided  the  history  of  Athens  for  thirty  years. 
This  was  Pericles,  a  member  of  the  noble  family  of  the  Pericles  the 
Alcmaeonidae  to  which  Cleisthenes  had  belonged.  In  the  J^JenhTn 
conflicts  about  the  overthrow  of  the  Areopagus,  Eph-  Politics. 
.  ialtes  had  been  murdered,  and  with  his  death  Pericles 
stood  alone  as  the  leader  of  the  democracy.  The  changes 
that  have  been  described,  which  turned  the  government 
into  a  practical  rule  of  the  people,  were  made  under  his 
direction.  Though  he  was  an  aristocrat  who  knew  and 
maintained  his  distance  from  the  people  with  a  dignity 

*It  must  be  remembered  that  the  purchasing  power  of  money  was 
much  greater  then  than  now. 


140         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

that  often  seemed  coldness,  he  nevertheless  took  their 
cause  to  his  heart,  awed  and  convinced  them  by  his  in- 
corruptible and  lofty  ideals,  and  swayed  them  by  his  clear 
and  glowing  eloquence.  Trusted  and  followed  by  the 
citizens,  he  ruled  them  as  their  servant,  and  moulded  the 
destiny  of  the  state  as  no  king  or  tyrant  could  ever  do. 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 
II.     THE  GREEK  EMPIRES 

1.  The  Beginnings  of  Greece  and  its  Expansion. 

2.  THE  FIRST  ATTEMPTS  AT  EMPIRE. 

(a)  The  Persian  Wars,  (b)  The  Rise  of  the  Athenian  Empire : 
Elements  assisting  it  (the  war  with  Persia,  the  /Egean  cleared, 
Delian  Confederacy  formed,  Athens  rebuilt,  commercial  situation) 
— Athens  at  the  head  of  the  Confederacy  (her  law  supreme,  her 
power  dominant) — politics  at  Sparta  and  Athens  (Pausanias  falls, 
Cimon  and  Themistocles) — the  spread  of  democracy — Athenian 
democracy  (Areopagus  overthrown,  Cimon  falls,  democracy  tri- 
umphant, the  ecclesia,  the  law-courts,  officials,  strategos,  Pericles 
the  leader). 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  What  events  are  connected  with  the 
names  of  Pausanias,  Cimon,  Themistocles,  Aristides?  2.  For 
what  are  the  following  places  noted:  Delos,  Eurymedon? 
3.  What  was  the  date  of  the  founding  of  the  Delian  Confeder- 
acy; of  the  ostracism  of  Themistocles?  4.  What  is  meant  by 
Areopagus,  Heliaea,  Ecclesia,  drachma,  dicastery,  helot? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  the  Delian  Confederacy 
with  the  Peloponnesian  League  (§  132).  2.  Compare  Athens 
in  the  years  500  B.C.  and  476  B.C. 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  The 
Confederacy  of  Delos.  Morey,  pp.  205-207;  Bury,  pp.  328- 
330;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  173-176.  2.  Themistocles  and  the  Re- 
covery of  Athens.  Bury,  pp.  330-334;  Morey,  pp.  202-205; 
.  Zimmern,  192-197.  3.  Fall  of  Pausanias  and  Themistocles. 
Bury,  pp.  324-326,  334-336;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  178-181;.  Zim- 


The  Age  of  Pericles  141 

.  ..them,  pp.  198-204.  4.  Athens  and  the  Confederacy.  Bury, 
pp.  336-342;  West,  pp.  160-162;  Botsford,  pp.  151-153.  5. 
Cinion.  Plutarch,  Life  of  Cimon;  Bury,  pp.  342-345;  Morey, 
pp.  207-209;  Zimmern,  pp.  205-213;  Botsford,  pp.  152-156. 

172.  The  thirty  years  (461-431  B.C.)  of  the  leadership  (3)  THE 
of  Pericles  is  the  supreme  period  of  the  Athenian  state.  ^RICLES 
It  reached  the  highest  place  of  wealth,  culture  and  power. 

To  Pericles  and  his  wise  direction  of  affairs  this  state  of 
things  was  largely  due,  and  the  period  is  properly  called  the 
"Age  of  Pericles."  As  the  scene  includes  the  whole  of 
Greece,  we  shall  take  advantage  of  it  to  study,  with  Athens 
as  the  central  point :  (a)  the  inner  life  of  the  Greek  world 
in  its  general  features,  and  (b)  the  political  condition  and 
course  of  affairs,  as  they  prepared  the  way  for  the  civil 
wars  which  gave  Greece  her  death-blow. 

173.  The  chief  characteristic  of  the  age  is  the  growth   (a)  The 
of  city  life.     The  attempts  of  Solon  and  Pisistratus  (§§  137,   £  "reell! 
139)  to  better  the  lot  of  the  Attic  peasants  did  not  succeed. 

The  introduction  of  money  and  the  necessity  of  competing 
with  grain  brought  from  across  the  sea  steadily  reduced  the 
farmers  to  poverty.  At  the  same  time  the  opportunities 
for  making  a  living  in  the  city  and  enjoying  life  there  grew 
greater,  and  multitudes  of  countrymen  flocked  thither. 
Their  lands  fell  to  the  nobles  or  capitalists  who  themselves 
lived  in  the  city  and  worked  their  wide  estates  by  slave 
labor.  The  attractions  of  trade  also  brought  large  nunv  Growth  of 
bers  of  foreigners  to  reside  more  or  less  permanently  in  the  tt 
cities.  The  result  was  that  city  populations  reached  their 
highest  point.  According  to  probable  estimates,  Athens 
numbered  not  less  than  250,000  people;  Syracuse  was  not 
far  behind;  Corinth  and  ^Egina  reached  about  100,000; 
Sparta  and  Argos  were  much  smaller,  and  there  was  a 


142         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

goodly  number  of  the  cities  of  the  ^Egean  in  which  from 
10,000  to  30,000  people  lived. 

174.  Industry  and  trade  became  the  chief  activities  in 
these  cities.  The  wants  of  the  large  populations  must 
be  supplied.  Many  people  set  up  little  shops  in  which 
they  manufactured  and  sold  goods  directly  to  customers. 
The  state  needed  many  hands  for  its  growing  public  busi- 


HtHOOOTV»  DOES  »OT_K_MO *^RO*  J*J5°f J^HE  LAND  EXTENDS 


THE  WORLD 

According  to  Herodotus 
Fifth  Ccnturr  B.  C. 


ness,  and  many  others  found  their  bread  in  working  on 
the  public  buildings  which  were  everywhere  put  up  on  a 
scale  of  splendor  corresponding  to  the  increasing  wealth 
and  importance  of  the  communities.  Manufacturing 
on  a  large  scale  was  not  uncommon,  and  many  workmen 
were  employed  in  turning  out  the  various  articles  which 
the  rapidly  advancing  commerce  required  for  export  to 
all  parts  of  the  Greek  world.  The  mercantile  activity 
of  the  Piraeus,  the  port  of  Athens,  grew  with  tremendous 
strides.  Ships  from  all  sides  brought  food  for  the  support 


Money  and  Coinage  143 

of  the  population — grain  and  fish  from  the  Black  sea, 
meats  from  Thessaly  and  Sicily,  fruits  from  Euboea, 
Rhodes  and  Phoenicia.  Costly  woods  came  from  Crete, 
ivory  from  Libya,  carpets  from  Carthage,  incense  from 
Syria  and  books  from  Egypt.  "The  fruits  of  the  whole 
earth,"  said  Pericles,  "flow  in  upon  us;  so  that  we  enjoy 
the  goods  of  other  countries  as  freely  as  of  our  own."  The 
incorporation  of  the  cities  of  the  Delian  League  into  the 
Athenian  Empire  still  further  stimulated  commerce  at 
Athens  and  throughout  the  various  cities.  One  law  and 
one  system  governed  all  their  transactions  with  one  another. 

175.  Thus  opportunity  was  offered  for  a  large  increase  increase  of 
of  wealth.  We  have  seen  the  older  idea  gradually  passing  Wealth- 
away,  that  true  property  was  property  in  land  (§§  125, 
130).  Now,  although  the  aristocracy  still  cherished  the  no- 
tion and  took  pride  in  their  estates,  manufacturing,  trade 
and  dealing  in  money  afforded  to  the  many  the  largest 
opportunity  for  acquiring  property  and  the  best  standard 
for  estimating  it.  A  thoroughly  organized  system  of  coinage, 
coinage  was  in  operation.  The  principal  silver  coin  was 
the  drachma  (nearly  20  cents);  there  were  also  two, 
three  and  four  drachma  pieces.  Of  smaller  coins  the  chief 
was  the  obol  (about  three  cents);  six  of  them  made  a 
drachma.  A  copper  coin,  the  chalkons,  was  one-eighth 
of  the  obol.  The  standard  of  monetary  exchange  was 
the  talent  (about  $1,180),  containing  sixty  minas  (the 
mina  about  $20) ;  the  mina  contained  100  drachmas.  Gold 
coins  were  usually  those  of  foreign  countries.  Later,  the 
gold  stater,  in  value  perhaps  equal  to  twenty  drachmas, 
was  coined.  Money  had  a  greater  purchasing  power 
than  at  present,  and  therefore  the  large  fortunes  of  that 
day  seem  small  to  us.  A  capital  of  from  $i  2,000  to  $i  5,000 


144         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

placed  one  in  the  ranks  of  the  rich.  Such  men  of  wealth 
found  abundant  opportunities  for  loaning  their  money, 
since  all  sorts  of  manufacturing  and  commercial  enter- 
prises needed  capital.  The  usual  rate  of  interest  on  good 
security  was  about  twelve  per  cent. 

Greeks  not  176.  It  seems  clear,  however,  that  in  general  the  Greeks 
itailtsCaP~  ^d  no  such  comprehension  of  business,  nor  did  they  so 
fully  recognize  the  importance  of  encouraging  trade,  as  did 
the  ancient  Babylonians.  They  were  slow  to  see  that 
"  money-making"  was  a  desirable  activity.  It  was  enough 
that  all  should  live  according  to  their  station  and  serve  the 
state  as  service  was  required.  Even  though  to  be  a  land- 
holder was  by  that  time  not  regarded  as  indispensable  to 
good  social  standing,  wealth  did  not  of  itself  make  its 
possessor  a  man  highly  regarded.  On  the  contrary,  a  mer- 
chant or  trader,  however  rich  he  might  be,  was  looked 
down  upon.  The  ordinary  citizen,  living  on  the  modest 
proceeds  of  his  daily  work,  or  supported  by  the  scanty 
dole  of  the  state  for  his  public  service,  was  more  honor- 
Greek  able.  Hindrances  were  put  in  the  way  of  commerce,  and 
toward6  limits  were  assigned  to  the  profits  to  be  gained.  Yet  corn- 
Money,  merce  grew  and  thrived  in  spite  of  public  sentiment. 
Only  because  the  advantages  of  having  money  could  not 
be  denied,  did  the  struggle  for  it  continue  to  absorb  more 
and  more  of  the  energies  of  the  citizens.  Yet  it  never 
approached  the  importance  and  prominence  which  it  has 
to-day.  The  Greek  thought  more  of  what  he  was  than  of 
what  he  had;  to  serve  the  state  and  to  enjoy  life  as  well  as 
to  enlarge  his  opportunities  of  doing  both,  these  were 
more  desirable  in  his  eyes  than  absorption  in  business  and 
the  pursuit  of  wealth. 

177.  The  result  of  this  was  that  the  business  of  Athens 


Classes  of  Society  145 

was  carried  on  chiefly  by  foreigners  who  were  permitted  Foreigners 
to  settle  in  the  city;  they  were  called  metoikoi.  The  ™e*"sl~ 
leaders  of  the  state  saw  clearly  the  advantages  of  encour- 
aging them  to  pursue  their  businesses,  and  they  were  more 
liberally  dealt  with  at  Athens  than  elsewhere.  Apart 
from  having  no  citizen-rights  and  being  compelled  to  pay 
a  tax  to  the  state,  they  were  on  an  equality  with  other  free- 
men. The  same  laws  protected  them;  the  same  privileges 
were  granted  them.  As  a  result  many  of  them  were  found 
at  Athens,  and  in  this  period  they  numbered  about  30,000 
persons. 

178.  From  an  economic  and  social  point  of  view  the  Thesiave 
most  important  class  of  the  population  was  the  slaves. 
Their  unpaid  labor  was  employed  in  tilling  the  great  es- 
tates, in  working  the  mines,  in  turning  out  manufactured 
articles  and  in  doing  all  sorts  of  household  service.     They 

made  it  possible  for  the  citizen  to  obtain  the  leisure  neces- 
sary to  perform  his  political  duties  and  to  enjoy  the  op- 
portunities for  culture  which  the  state  afforded.  As  the 
activities  of  the  cities  enlarged,  the  number  of  slaves  also 
increased.  The  slave-trade  became  more  important;  the 
supply  from  the  North  ^Egean  and  Black  sea  region  was 
abundant;  captives  in  war  were  sold.  Every  city  had  a 
large  slave  population;  that  at  Athens  has  been  estimated 
at  about  100,000  and  the  other  large  cities  had  propor- 
tionate numbers.  They  formed,  one  might  say,  the  foun- 
dation of  the  social  structure. 

179.  Another  social  element,  the  family,  throws  an  in-  The 
structive  side-light  upon  Greek  life.     The  equality  and 
freedom  which  reigned  in  the  best  public  life  of  the  time 
had  no  place  in  the  life  at  home.  The  husband  was  abso- 
lute ruler  in  his  household,  and  his  wife  was  a  nonentity. 


146         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

He  spent  little  time  at  home;  she  seldom  left  it.  Here  the 
Greek  was  far  behind  the  Oriental  of  Babylonia  and  Egypt 
(§25),  where  woman  had  a  relatively  high  place  in  society. 
Indeed,  in  some  respects,  the  cultured  and  free  Athenian 

woman.  did  not  respect  woman  as  highly  as  the  rude  Spartan,  who 
gave  her  much  larger  liberty.  In  the  earlier  ages  of  the 
aristocratic  rule  the  wives  of  the  nobles  seem  to  have  had 
greater  influence,  but  it  is  one  of  the  strange  inconsisten- 
cies of  Greek  life  that  the  new  democracy  and  the  larger 
city-life  both  worked  to  lower  the  position  of  woman.  The 
wife  did  not  even  have  charge  of  the  household,  which  was 
managed  by  a  steward.  She  usually  brought  a  dowry  to 
her  husband,  which  in  case  of  divorce  had  to  be  repaid  to 
her  father.  On  the  whole,  nowhere  is  the  limitation  of 
the  Greek  ideal  of  life  more  distinctly  manifest  than  in 
the  position  of  woman  and  the  contribution  of  the  family 
to  society.  The  Greeks  thought  of  marriage  chiefly  as  a 
means  of  raising  up  citizens  for  the  state;  an  interesting 
illustration  of  this  idea  is  seen  in  the  law  introduced  in 
Pericles's  time,  that  only  he  could  be  accepted  as  a  citizen 
whose  father  and  mother  were  Athenians  by  blood.  Nat- 
urally, girls  were  not  as  desirable  as  boys,  and  little  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  them  beyond  keeping  them  indoors.  The 

Education,  boy,  however,  was  very  carefully  reared.  Grammar, 
music  and  gymnastics  were  the  three  parts  of  his  educa- 
tion. By  the  first  was  meant  the  learning  of  his  own  lan- 
guage and  the  study  of  Homer  and  the  other  early  poets, 
not  merely  as  a  means  of  training  in  forms  of  speech,  but 
as  sources  of  knowledge  about  life,  duty  and  religion.  In 
music,  he  was  taught  how  to  sing,  and  to  play  on  musical 
instruments.  Gymnastics  included  running  and  wrest- 
ling, practice  in  the  use  of  weapons,  riding  and  other 


t! 


Daily  Life  of  an  Athenian  147 

similar  exercises  for  the  finest  bodily  development  and 
skill  in  arms. 

180.  Greek  society  then  was  chiefly  a  society  of   men  The  House, 
whose  main  interests  lay  in  public  life.     The  house,  for 
example,  was  ordinarily  small  and  unattractive.     It  faced 
directly  on  the  street,  often  with  no  opening  except  the 

door  which  swung  outward,  a  fact  suggestive  of  the  prefer- 
ence of  the  Greek  for  the  open  air.  The  women's  apart- 
ments were  separate  and  secluded.  Indeed,  the  house 
served  the  Greek  chiefly  for  sleeping  purposes,  the  storing 
of  his  goods  and  the  keeping  of  his  household.  From  it  Daily  Life, 
he  sallied  out  very  early  in  the  morning,  after  a  taste  of 
wine  and  bread,  to  meet  his  friends,  or  engage  in  public 
business  in  the  assembly  or  elsewhere.  Toward  the  mid- 
dle of  the  day  he  took  breakfast  or  lounged  about  and 
gossiped  in  the  public  walks  or  porticoes.  The  gymna- 
sium occupied  him  in  the  afternoon  as  a  place  of  exercise 
or  of  intercourse  with  friends,  whence  he  returned  home 
for  dinner,  the  chief  meal  of  the  day.  If  a  poor  man,  he 
went  early  to  bed;  if  well-to-do  and  socially  inclined,  he 
spent  the  evening  at  a  banquet  with  his  friends. 

181.  The  Athens  of  Pericles  offered  the  finest  type  of  High  Plane 
this  manner  of  life  to  be  found  in  the  fifth  century.     The  of  Livin*' 
pursuit  of  wealth  was  subordinated  to  the  joy  of  making 

the  most  of  life  among  one's  fellows  and  in  public  activity. 
The  "glorification  of  cultivated  human  intercourse"  was 
the  ideal  toward  which  men  strove.  The  pinch  of  want 
was  removed  by  the  stipend  sufficient  for  simple  living 
which  the  state  paid  its  poorest  citizen  for  his  work  in  its 
service.  Orphans  and  cripples  were  cared  for  at  public 
expense.  Public  lands,  obtained  as  the  outcome  of  war. 
were  assigned  to  citizens  who  were  willing  to  go  and  live 


148         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

upon  them.     Two  features  of  this  life  which  had  an  es- 
pecially important  bearing  on  the  material  welfare  of  the 
citizen  and  his  higher  culture  deserve  special  mention: 
the  public  buildings  and  the  religious  festivals. 
Public  182.  In  Greece,  as  in  ancient  Babylonia  (§  34),  the  chief 

Buildings.  Buildings  of  every  city  were  its  temples.  They  were  the 
centres  of  public  life,  of  business  as  well  as  of  religion. 
They  were  the  places  of  deposit  for  money  or  treasure  of 
any  sort.  Although,  in  the  Greek  states,  the  growth  of 
popular  government  and  the  emphasis  on  the  independence 
of  the  individual  had  made  the  political  predominance  of 
the  priest  impossible  and  his  influence  on  public  affairs 
unimportant,  yet  religion  continued  to  be  glorified  by 
The  stately  and  beautiful  temples,  adorned  with  the  highest 

tempilT  artistic  ski11-  Tne  Athenian  temples  had  perished  in  the 
successive  onslaughts  of  the  Persians,  and  it  was  a  duty 
as  well  as  a  pious  delight  on  the  part  of  the  citizens  to  re- 
store them.  Cimon  had  begun  the  work  on  a  noble  scale, 
but  Pericles  continued  the  task  and  carried  it  through  in  a 
fashion  that  has  immortalized  his  own  name  as  well  as  that 
of  Athens.  An  artist  of  the  highest  genius  was  at  his  hand 
in  the  person  of  Phidias,  who  was  assisted  by  other  men 
of  uncommon  ability.  The  principal  scene  of  this  archi^ 
tectural  and  artistic  display  was  the  Acropolis  (§  133):; 
and  the  building  in  which  it  reached  its  height  was  the 
temple  of  Athene  the  Virgin  (Parthenos),  hence  called 
The  Par-  the  Parthenon.  Unlike  the  famous  structures  of.  the 
enon.  Ancient  East,  it  was  not  the  immense  size  of  the  Par- 
thenon, but  its  beautiful  proportions,  exquisite  adorn- 
ment and  ideal  sculptures  that  made  it  memorable.  It 
was  one  hundred  feet  wide,  two  hundred  and  twenty-six 
feet  long  and  sixty-five  feet  high,  built  of  marble  and 


THE    HERMES    OF    PRAXITELES 


Art  and  Literature  at  Athens          149 

painted  in  harmonious  colors.  A  row  of  forty-six  Doric 
columns  surrounded  it,  and  every  available  space  above 
the  columns,  within  and  without,  was  carved  in  relief  with 
scenes  representing  glorious  events  in  the  religious  history 
of  Athens.  A  wonderfully  sculptured  frieze,  extending 
for  more  than  five  hundred  feet  around  the  inner  temple, 
depicted,  with  a  variety  and  energy  never  surpassed, 
scenes  in  the  Panathenaea,  the  festival  in  honor  of  the 
patron  goddess,  Athene.  In  the  temple  stood  a  statue 
of  the  deity,  the  masterpiece  of  Phidias,  made  of  ivory 
and  gold,  thirty-eight  feet  in  height  including  the  pedes- 
tal. Though  the  statue  has  long  since  disappeared  and 
the  temple  itself  is  but  a  ruin,  the  remains  of  it  illustrate 
supremely  the  chief  features  of  Greek  architecture — 
"simplicity,  harmony,  refinement,"  the  union  of  strength 
and  beauty. 

183.  Nowhere  in  the  Greek  world  were  the  religious  The  Re- 
festivals  celebrated  with  so  great  splendor  and  beauty  as  Festivals  of 
in  the  Athens  of  Pericles.     In  addition  to  the  Dionysiac  Athens, 
festivals  already  mentioned  (§  138),  a  new  one  had  been 
established  some  time  before,  the  Greater  Dionysia,  cele- 
brated in  March.     The  contests  in  tragedy  and  comedy 
had  been  transferred  to  it.     Here,  before  the  Athenian  The  Plays, 
public,  some  of  the  most  glorious  productions  of  human 
genius    were   produced.     Here    ^Eschylus    (§  157)    had 
taught  his  tremendous  lessons  of  righteousness  and  hu- 
mility.     He  was   succeeded   by  Sophocles   (about  496-  Sophocles. 
406  B.C.),  who  won  the  prize  over  his  older  competitor 
in  468  B.C.,  and  gained  it  many  times  thereafter.     He 
represents  the  high,  free  and  glad  spirit  of  the  Athens  of 
his  day.     His  most  famous  play  is  the  Antigone,  in  which 
is  brought  out  the  victory  of  duty  over  the  fear  of  death, 


150         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

of  the  higher  law  of  God  over  the  visible  law  of  man.  An- 
tigone buries  the  body  of  her  brother,  though  the  king 
has  forbidden  it  under  pain  of  death.  The  serene  soul 
of  the  poet  is  marvellously  shown  in  the  beauty  and  dignity 
of  his  style.  He  sang  of  men  as  they  ought  to  be,  reveal- 
ing and  idealizing  human  character,  which  at  its  best  is, 
in  his  inspired  vision,  harmonious  with  the  blessed  will  of 
God.  So  he  interpreted  the  supreme  ideal  of  the  age  of 
Pericles  and  lived  it  himself.  "He  died  well,  having  suf- 
fered no  evil."  A  later  poet,  imagining  him  in  the  other 
world,  described  him  as  "gentle"  there,  "even  as  he  was 
gentle  among  us." 

The  184.  Another  famous  festival  was  that  of  the  Mysteries 

Mysteries'1  (§  I24)  °^  Eleusis.  Eleusis  lay  twelve  miles  away  from 
Athens,  and  every  year  in  August  multitudes  gathered 
in  the  capital  to  make  in  solemn  procession  the  journey 
to  the  Eleusinian  temple  to  be  initiated  into  the  mys- 
teries or  to  renew  the  celebration  of  them.  A  day  of 
purification  by  washing  in  the  sea  preceded  the  moving 
of  the  procession,  which  passed  along  the  sacred  way  to 
the  splendid  temple  at  Eleusis,  rebuilt  by  Ictinus  under 
Pericles's  direction.  Here  those  secret  acts  of  worship 
and  devotion  to  the  goddess  Demeter  were  performed, 
which  exercised  so  deep,  wholesome  and  hopeful  an  in- 
The  fluence  upon  Greek  life.  Yet  by  far  the  most  splendid 

panathe-  of  all  festivals  was  the  panathenaea,  celebrated  with 
peculiar  magnificence  every  fifth  year,  a  festival  which 
glorified  at  the  same  time  the  goddess  Athene,  and  the 
city  of  her  joy  and  glory.  For  nearly  a  week  contests 
in  music,  song  and  recitation,  in  gymnastics,  races  and 
warlike  sports,  were  held,  and  all  was  concluded  with  a 
solemn  procession  to  the  temple  of  Athene  on  the  Acrop- 


Herodotus  151 

oils,  where  a  costly  robe  woven  by  the  maidens  of  the 
city  was  given  to  the  goddess.  That  procession,  made  up 
of  the  flower  of  the  Athenian  citizens,  of  resident  aliens 
and  colonists,  was  depicted  on  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon 
(§  182)  and  formed  the  finest  picture  of  Athens  in  the  days 
of  its  highest  splendor. 

185.  At  a  Panathenaean  festival  in  the  days  of  Pericles,  Herodotus 
Herodotus  is  said  to  have  recited  his  History,  the  first 
prose  work  of  genius  that  Greece  produced.  Herodotus 
(about  484-425  B.C.)  was  a  native  of  Halicarnassus  in 
Ionia,  but  after  the  days  of  his  youth  found  a  second 
home  at  Athens.  He  travelled,  with  eyes  and  ears  wide 
open,  all  over  the  world,  from  the  capitals  of  Persia  to 
Italy,  and  from  the  Black  sea  to  the  southern  border  of 
Egypt.  The  results  of  his  investigations  he  gathered  into 
a  work  which  finds  its  motive  in  the  Persian  wars.  As 
he  portrays  successively  before  us  the  rise  of  Persia,  the 
conquest  of  Babylon  and  Egypt,  the  past  history  of  these 
peoples,  the  Scythian  expedition,  he  leads  up  to  the 
great,  the  supreme  struggle  between  this  mighty,  world- 
conquering  Empire  and  the  petty  Greek  states.  Then 
he  describes  the  wars  in  detail.  The  whole  is  a  prose 
poem,  pointing  the  moral  of  .^Eschylus  (§  157).  Scat- 
tered through  this  broad  field  are  innumerable  anecdotes, 
traditions,  legends,  which  enliven  while  they  do  not  break 
the  single  impression.  Devoted  to  Athens,  he  glorified 
the  part  taken  by  the  city  in  the  war;  he  loved  her  in- 
stitutions and  enjoyed  her  society.  His  work  shares  in 
the  artistic,  keen  and  genial  spirit  characteristic  of  her 
best  days,  and  while  descriptive  and  not  critical,  its  orig- 
inality and  charm  have  given  it  a  permanent  place  in 
literature. 


152         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

TheEduca-  186.  We  are  ready  to  understand  now  how  Athens 
Athenian*  realized  the  ideal  of  "  the  glorification  of  cultivated  human 
citizen.  intercourse"  (§  181),  the  elevation  of  a  body  of  men 
possessed  of  social  and  political  equality  to  a  common 
height  of  intelligence  and  general  culture  never  reached 
before  that  day,  or  probably  since.  All  beheld  daily  these 
marvels  of  architecture  and  art,  and  many  took  part  in 
their  erection.  All  joined  in  these  splendid  festivals, 
witnessed  or  contended  in  the  athletic,  musical  and  lit- 
erary contests.  By  state  payment  to  the  poorer  citizens 
of  the  price  of  admission  to  the  theatre,  all  were  able  to 
see  and  hear  the  plays  of  ^schylus  or  Sophocles.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  these  theatrical  exhibitions 
were  also  contests  between  rival  authors,  in  which  the 
people  themselves  were  judges.  Thus  a  standard  of 
taste  and  appreciation  was  set  at  a  very  high  mark.  The 
participation  in  public  life,  the  decisions  on  points  of  state 
policy  which  lay  in  the  hands  of  the  citizens,  were  all 
means  of  training.  The  popular  law-courts  cultivated 
the  judicial  faculty.  The  administration  of  the  affairs 
of  the  state  awakened  and  trained  executive  ability.  Thus 
the  higher  powers  of  the  great  body  of  citizens  were  edu- 
cated to  an  extraordinary  degree;  the  experience  made 
the  Athenians  the  most  splendidly  intelligent  of  all  Greeks. 
Such  an  atmosphere  of  breadth  and  freedom,  that  en- 
couraged higher  thought,  invited  to  Athens  from  all  over 
the  Greek  world  men  who  were  eager  to  know  and  to 
Athens  the  teach.  As  a  consequence  the  best  that  was  thought  and 
Greece"  "*  sa^  an<^  ^one  m  art  an(^  poetics  and  literature  was  found 
at  Athens.  Therefore,  it  was  no  vain  boast  of  Pericles, 
but  sober  truth,  when  he  said,  "Athens  is  the  school  of 
Greece,  and  the  individual  Athenian  in  his  own  person 


Politics  in  the  Age  of  Pericles         153 

seems  to  have  the  power  of  adapting  himself  to  the  most 
varied  forms  of  action  with  the  utmost  versatility  and 
grace." 

187.  But  whence  came  the  money  to  meet  the  expenses  Sources  of 
of  this  highly  and  richly  organized  system  of  government  ?  Rgven'uT 
Athens  had  various  sources  of  revenue:  rent  from  state 

lands,  including  especially  the  gold  and  silver  mines,  tolls 
for  markets,  and  harbor  dues,  the  tax  on  resident  for- 
eigners, the  fees  from  the  theatres,  the  receipts  from  the 
law-courts  in  fees,  confiscations,  etc.,  and  in  case  of  great 
necessity,  a  direct  assessment  upon  the  people  of  property. 
The  costs  of  the  splendid  exhibitions  at  festivals  were  borne 
by  the  free-will  offerings  of  rich  citizens,  and  many  offices 
were  without  salary.  The  entire  income  from  all  sources 
was  about  1,000  talents  yearly.  Besides  this,  the  receipts 
from  the  allied  cities  of  the  league  amounted  at  this  time 
to  about  600  talents.  Athene  also  possessed  a  great  sum 
of  money  in  her  temple  from  gifts  of  the  pious,  her  share 
of  the  booty  in  war,  etc.,  and  she  was  called  upon  to  con- 
tribute her  share  to  the  upbuilding  of  the  state,  as  well 
as  to  lend  money  when  required.  From  all  these  sources 
Pericles  drew  the  money  needful  for  the  various  depart- 
ments of  the  administration  and  for  the  public  buildings 
with  which  the  city  was  adorned. 

188.  From  this  sketch  of  the  inner  life  (§§  173-187)  we  o>)  Greek 
pass  to  the  foreign  relations  of  Athens  under  the  leader-  ^li^Age 
ship  of  Pericles  during  the  same  period  (461-431  B.C.).  ofpericies 
The  fall  of  Cimon  (§  167)  was  accompanied  not  only  by 

the  victory  of  democracy  at  home,  but  also  by  a  forward 
policy  abroad,  the  chief  aim  of  which  was  to  extend  Athe- 
nian power  on  all  sides  and  to  oppose  Spartan  leadership. 
Alliance  was  made  with  Argos  and  Thessaly;  Megara 


154         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

Growth  of  was  drawn  away  from  the  Peloponnesian  League.  A 
Land™2"  naval  station  was  secured  on  the  Corinthian  gulf  at 
Power.  Naupactus.  These  movements  threatened  the  commerce 


of  ^Egina  and  Corinth,  who  began  war  in  459  B.C.  Cor- 
inth was  beaten;  ^Egina  was  subjected  and  compelled 
to  enter  the  Delian  League.  Then  Sparta  took  a  hand 
in  the  war,  by  entering  Breotia  with  an  army,  on  the  pre- 
tence of  punishing  the  Phocians,  but  really  to  organize 


Peace  with  Per  da  155 

Boeotia  against  Athens.     Though  the  Spartans  defeated 

the  Athenians  at  Tanagra  in  457  B,C.,  they  accomplished 

nothing.     Boeotia  went  over  to  Athens  the  next  year. 

Soon  after,  the  Achaean  cities  on  the  southern  coast  of 

the  Corinthian  gulf  joined  her.     Thus  Athenian  influence 

on  land  extended  over  a  wide  territory.     But  it  was  also 

very  unstable.     A  truce  for  five  years  was  made  with  Failure  of 

Sparta  in  450  B.C.,  but  Argos,  Megara,  Bceotia  and  Eu-  Jtehenian 

bcea  fell  away;  and  so,  in  the  end,  though  Euboea  was  Land. 

recovered,  the  vigorous  and  costly  attempt  of  Athens  to 

build  up  a  great  land  power  in  Greece  signally  failed.     It 

was  never  renewed.   Finally,  in  445  B.C.,  between  Athens 

and  Sparta  and  their  respective  allies  a  peace  was  made  Peace. 

that  was  to  last  thirty  years. 

189.  Meanwhile,  Athens  had  been  carrying  on  the  war  The  war 
with  Persia  (§§  160,  161).     Though  no  Persian  ships  ap-  p*^ 
peared  in  the  ^Egean,  the  Athenians  determined  to  crip- 
ple the  power  of  the  Great  King  still  further  by  aiding  a 
rebellion  against  him  in  Egypt.     In  459  B.C.  they  sent  a 
strong  fleet  to  the  Nile.     Though  at  first  successful,  the 
rebellion  was  finally  crushed  and  the  Athenian  force  de- 
stroyed (454  B.C.).     This  serious  blow  brought  hostilities 
to  an  end  until  449  B.C.,  when  Cimon,  who  had  been  re- 
called from  exile,  was  sent  with  a  fleet  to  Cyprus,  where  the 
Persians  were  attacking  the  Greek  cities.     He  died  while  Death  of 
on  the  expedition,  but  the  fleet  gained  a  brilliant  victory  Cunon' 
by  which  Persia  was  again  driven  from  the  sea.     These 
conflicts  had  cost  Athens  dear  in  men  and  money  without 
corresponding  results,  so  that  just  as  she  had  come  to 
an   agreement   with   her  enemies  in  Greece,  it  seemed 
wise   to   make   peace   with    Persia.     Negotiations   were 
entered  upon  by  sending  Callias  to  Susa,  and   though 


156         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

the  Great    King  would  not  formally  agree  to   yield  his 

claim  upon  cities  that  had  rebelled  against  him,  yet  prac- 

tically he  consented,   henceforth,   not  to  molest  Greek 

The  Peace     cities  or  Greek  ships.     This  so-called  peace  is  known  as 

of  Callias. 


190.  Thus  Athens  in  445  B.C.  was  at  peace  with  all  the 
world.     She  had  learned  the  folly  of  attempting  to  con- 
The  trol  all  Greece,  and  now  set  about  recovering  her  strength 

Empire*11  an(^  developing  her  legitimate  field,  that  of  commerce  and 
control  of  the  seas.  The  decisive  steps  were  taken  which 
turned  the  Delian  League  into  the  Athenian  Empire. 
About  454  B.C.,  after  the  Athenian  disaster  in  Egypt,  the 
treasury  of  the  League  had  been  removed  for  greater 
security  from  Delos  to  Athens.  And  now,  although  all 
fear  of  Persia  was  removed  by  the  Peace  of  Callias,  the 
imperial  city  continued  to  require  the  yearly  contribu- 
tions from  the  allies  and  dealt  with  the  money  according 
to  her  own  will.  The  decision  to  treat  the  allies  in  this 
way  was  not  reached  without  a  struggle  between  the  par- 
ties at  Athens.  The  opponents  of  Pericles  were  led  by 
Thucydides,  son  of  Melesias,  the  ostracism  of  whom  in 
organiza-  443  B.C.  settled  the  matter.  Samos,  Chios  and  Lesbos 
tion-  alone  remained  on  the  old  footing  of  furnishing  ships  to 

the  fleet.  All  the  others  were  subject  and  paid  tribute. 
Athens  collected  the  tolls  in  their  harbors,  interfered  in 
their  local  affairs  in  the  interests  .of  democracy,  had  gar- 
risons in  many  of  their  cities,  sent  out  inspectors  among 
them,  required  many  to  destroy  their  walls.  Colonies 
of  Athenian  citizens,  called  cleruchi,  were  sent  out  to 
occupy  lands  which  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Athe- 
nian state,  and  thus  constituted  a  body  of  faithful  friends 
in  the  midst  of  restless  subjects.  The  entire  body  of 


The  Athenian  Empire  157 

dries  thus  dependent  on  Athens  was  divided  for  adminis- 
trative and  financial  purposes  into  five  districts:  Ionia, 
Caria,  the  Hellespont,  Thrace,  the  Islands.  Thus  a 
stately  imperial  system  arose  with  its  centre  in  democratic 
Athens.  The  chief  reason  for  censuring  Athens  because  Athens's 
of  this  transformation  of  the  old  Delian  League  is  that  Mistake 
she  took  no  steps  to  attach  her  subjects  to  herself  other- 
wise than  by  fear.  No  doubt  she  gave  them  protection, 
better  government  and  higher  culture,  but  she  had  robbed 
them  of  their  independence  without  granting  them  citi- 
zenship in  the  new  community  or  a  voice  in  the  state. 
This  blind  selfishness  and  unblushing  arrogance  of  power 
brought  its  fitting  punishment  before  the  century  was  over. 

191.  Far  beyond  the  bounds  of  the  Empire  Pericles  wide  Ex- 
sought  to  extend  the  commercial  influence  and  activity  ^e^an 
of  Athens.  The  Persian  peace  opened  the  ports  of  the  influence, 
eastern  Mediterranean,  and  Phoenician  traders  with  the 
wares  of  the  Orient  again  appeared  in  Greek  waters. 
Many  of  the  distant  Greek  cities  of  the  Black  sea  ac- 
knowledged Athenian  authority.  The  commercial  im- 
portance of  the  Imperial  City  grew  continually  in  the  West 
and  opportunity  was  found  to  establish  political  relations 
there.  In  443  B.C.,  under  the  leadership  of  Athens,  the 
city  of  Thurii  was  founded  in  southeastern  Italy.  On 
its  west  coast  Athenian  merchants  began  to  gather  the 
trade  into  their  own  hands.  The  leading  people  of  that 
region,  the  Etruscans,  bought  Attic  vases  and  sold  their 
curious  metal-work  in  the  Athenian  market.  Rome,  a 
city  on  the  river  Tiber,  which  held  a  dominating  place  in 
its  own  district  of  Latium,  was  already  preparing  for 
the  mighty  part  it  was  to  play  in  the  centuries  to  come. 
In  454  B.C.,  it  is  said,  the  Romans  sent  an  embassy  to 


158         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

Embassy  Greece  to  study  its  systems  of  law.  They  came  to  Athens 
Rome.  and  thence  transplanted  parts  of  the  legislation  of  Solon 
into  Roman  soil.  It  was  a  thrilling  moment  in  history — 
the  first  direct  and  definite  contribution  made  by  Greek 
life  to  that  people  which  was  destined  ultimately  to  rule 
a  wider  world  than  the  Greeks  ever  imagined  1 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 
II.  THE  GREEK  EMPIRES 

1.  The  Beginnings  of  Greece  and  its  Expansion. 

2.  THE  FIRST  ATTEMPTS  AT  EMPIRE. 

(a)  The  Persian  Wars,  (b)  The  Rise  of  the  Athenian  Empire. 
(c)  The  Age  of  Pericles:  (i)  The  inner  life  of  Greece  as  reflected  in 
Athens  (growth  of  city  life,  industry  and  trade,  increase  of  wealth, 
money,  Greek  attitude  toward  business,  foreigners  in  trade,  slaves, 
the  family,  woman,  education  of  children,  the  house,  daily  life, 
refined  living — the  temple  and  religious  festivals,  tragedy,  Sophocles, 
Eleusinian  mysteries,  Panathensea,  Herodotus — Athenian  life  as  an 
education,  Athens  a  university,  sources  of  revenue).  (2)  Politics 
of  the  age  (Athenian  land  power,  its  rise  and  fall,  the  Persian  war 
again,  peace  of  Callias,  Athens  an  empire,  its  organization,  its 
weakness,  wide  influence  of  Athens.) 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  are  the  following  signifi- 
cant: Tanagra,  Corcyra,  Eleusis,  Piraeus,  Halicarnassus?  2. 
What  is  meant  by  Cleruchi,  talent,  Acropolis,  Dionysia,  Pan- 
athenaea,  Antigone?  3.  What  are  the  dates  of  the  age  of  Peri- 
cles, of  the  Peace  of  Callias,  of  the  Thirty  Years'  Peace? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  Athenian  democracy 
in  the  time  of  Cleisthenes  with  that  in  the  age  of  Pericles.  2. 
Compare  the  Law-Courts  of  Athens  with  those  of  your  own 
city.  3.  Compare  the  Athenian  Empire  with  the  Persian 
(§§  83-90). 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  Life  at 
Athens  in  the  Age  of  Pericles.  Zimmern,  pp.  224-235;  Bury, 
pp.  337-338;  Morey,  pp.  251-261.  2.  The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the 


Athens,  Corinth  and  Corcyra          159 

Athenian  Land  Power.  Bury,  pp.  352-363;  Zimmern,  pp.  219- 
224;  Botsford,  pp.  164-169.  3.  Imperial  Athens.  Bury,  pp 
278-284,  363-367;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  213-217;  Botsford,  pp. 
169-172.  4.  The  Acropolis.  Bury,  pp.  367-375;  Shuckburgh, 
pp.  201—204;  Morey,  pp.  232—239;  Botsford,  pp.  179—185.  5. 
Herodotus.  Capps,  ch.  12;  Murray,  ch.  6;  Jebb,  pp.  103-106. 
6.  The  Mysteries.  Bury,  pp.  311-316;  Ency.  Brit.,  art.  "Myste- 
ries"; Dyer,  The  Gods  in  Greece,  ch.  5;  Diehl,  Excursions  in 
Greece,  ch.  8.  7.  Sophocles.  Morey,  pp.  245—247;  Capps,  ch.  9; 
Murray,  ch.  n;  Jebb,  pp.  83-88.  8.  Pericles.  Plutarch,  Life 
of  Pericles. 


192.  Another  movement  of  Athens  in  the  interest  of 
her  commercial  and  political  position  in  the  West  was  the 
occasion  of  a  serious  rupture  in  the  peaceful  relations  that 
had  been  maintained  for  ten  years  between  Athens  and 
Sparta.  In  436  B.C.  a  quarrel  arose  between  Corinth  The  War  o» 
and  Corcyra.  The  latter  state,  although  it  possessed  a  ^inth 
fleet  of  more  than  fifty  ships,  could  not  hope  to  equal  the  Corcyra. 
resources  of  Corinth  in  a  serious  conflict.  Hence  it  sought 
an  alliance  with  Athens.  This  proposal  put  the  Athenians 
in  a  difficult  position.  Should  they  reject  it,  Corcyra 
would  make  terms  with  Corinth,  her  naval  force  and 
commercial  influence  in  the  West  would  be  thrown  against 
Athens  and  seriously  endanger  Athenian  naval  supremacy. 
Should  they  accept  it,  their  superiority  on  the  sea  would 
be  irresistible,  their  commercial  position  in  the  West 
strengthened,  and  Corinth,  their  only  commercial  rival 
in  the  Peloponnesian  League,  put  out  of  the  race.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  they  would  risk  war  with  the  League. 
It  was  finally  decided  to  agree  to  a  defensive  alliance  with 
Corcyra,  whereby  Athens  was  not  required  to  join  in  an 
attack  on  the  Corinthians.  As  might  have  been  expected, 
this  half-way  measure  roused  the  enmity  of  Corinth,  whose 


160         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

The  inter-    future  now  depended  on  the  weakening  of  Athens.     Her 
Athens"  °f     omv  n°Pe  f°r  this  was  m  stirring  up  the  Peloponnesian 
League  to  war.     This  was  not  difficult  to  do.     The  Spar- 
tans had  long  been  jealous  of  the  growing  power  of  Athens. 
The  years  of  peace  had  been  irksome  to  this  vigorous  and 
warlike  people.     Athens,  on  the  other  hand,  under  the 
influence  of  Pericles,  would  not  yield.     He  felt  certain 
that  war  could  be  put  off  only  a  few  years  at  the  most  and 
that  Athens  was  never  in  a  better  condition  to  defend  her- 
self against  her  jealous  and  ambitious  enemies.     He  was 
Gives  Occa-  willing  to  arbitrate  the  whole  matter,  but  not  to  compro- 
wT/wIth     m^se-   At  last,  at  a  council  of  the  Peloponnesian  League 
the  Peiop-    held  at  Sparta  in  432  B.C.,  it  was  voted  that  Athens  had 
League.       broken  the  peace.     This  was  equivalent  to  a  declaration 
of  war.     Athens  accepted  it  as  such  and  the  conflict  began 
in  431  B.C.      With  this  a  new  period  in  the  history  of  the 
Greek  states  is  begun  and  we  may  pause  to  look  back 
over  a  finished  era. 


GENERAL  REVIEW  OF   PART  II,  DIVISION  2;    §§142-192 

500-431  B.C. 

TOPICS  FOR  CLASS  DISCUSSION.  1.  An  Outline  of  the 
Events  of  these  Periods  arranged  so  as  to  bring  out  the  chief 
historical  movements  and  forces.  2.  Illustrate  the  progress 
of  Athenian  Democracy  by  the  successive  policies  of  Miltiades, 
Aristides,  Themistocles,  Cimon,  Pericles  (§§  143, 146,  155,  159, 
162,  165,  171).  3.  Trace  the  growth  of  the  Athenian  Empire  from 
500-431  B.C.  4.  Justify  the  policy  of  Themistocles  from  the 
events  that  followed.  5.  The  various  stages  in  the  war  with 
Persia  (§§  143,  145,  147,  154,  160,  165,  189).  6.  A  comparison 
of  ^schylus  with  Sophocles  to  illustrate  the  difference  in 
the  periods  to  which  they  respectively  belong  (§§  157,  183). 
7.  A  List  of  the  most  important  Dates  in  these  periods.  ^ 


The  Peloponnesian  War  161 

MAP  AND  PICTURE  EXERCISES.  1.  Make  an  outline  map 
of  the  Athenian  Empire  in  460  B.C.,  inserting  all  the  places 
mentioned  in  the  text.  2.  Make  a  map  and  plan  of  Pylos  and 
discuss  the  battle  on  the  basis  of  your  drawing.  3.  Study  the 
heads  of  Sophocles  and  Pericles  in  Plate  XI  and  compare  with 
those  of  Hammurabi  and  Ramses  II  in  Plate  II.  Indicate  the 
artistic  and  historical  resemblances  and  differences.  4.  Com- 
pare the  Greek  Temples  in  Plate  XII  with  those  in  Plate  IV. 
Observe  the  differences  in  form  and  arrangement.  How  do 
these  differences  throw  light  on  the  different  characteristics  of 
the  Oriental  and  Greek  peoples? 

TOPICS  FOR  WRITTEN  PAPERS.  1.  The  Privileges  and 
Duties  of  an  Athenian  Citizen  in  the  Age  of  Pericles.  Fowler, 
The  City  State,  ch.  6.  2.  A  Visit  to  the  Acropolis  of  Athens — 
a  description  of  Plate  VII.  See  references  above  §  191;  Diehl, 
Excursions  in  Greece,  ch.  4.  3.  Herodotus,  the  Man  and  His 
Book  (see  the  references  above  §  191).  4.  The  Story  of  a  Day  in 
Athens  in  the  Age  of  Pericles.  Mahaffy,  Old  Greek  Life;  Grant, 
Greece  in  the  Age  of  Pericles.  5.  The  Greek  Theatre — the 
Building  and  the  Play.  6.  Styles  of  Greek  Architecture.  Tar- 
bell,  ch.  3.  7.  The  Architecture  of  Greek  Buildings  as  Com- 
pared with  that  of  Buildings  in  your  own  City.  8.  The  Story 
of  Sophocles's  "Antigone."  Translation  by  Palmer. 

193.  The  war,  called  the  Peloponnesian  War,  which  (4)  THE 
now  ensued  and  with  intervals  of  peace  lasted  for  more  NEsiANO 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century  (431-404  B.C.),  was  one  of  the  WAR. 
most  melancholy  wars  of  history.     In  one  sense  it  was  ut- 
terly unjustifiable  and  unnecessary.     Athens  and  Sparta  unjusti- 
might  have  gone  on  peacefully,  each  in  her  separate  way —  fiable> 
the  one  a  strong  land  power,  the  other  the  mistress  of  the 
seas.     Both  had  every  reason  to  avoid  a  conflict  which 
was  sure  to  be  long  and  costly  and  the  outcome  of  which 
was  quite  uncertain.    The  grounds   on  which  war  was 
declared  were  not  sufficient  to  justify  the  declaration. 
Passion  and  prejudice  forced  the  decisive  step.     But,  Yetun- 
from  another  point  of  view,  the  war  was  unavoidable. 


162         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

Beneath  all  reasons  on  the  surface  of  the  situation,  the 
deeper  cause  was  the  imperial  ideal  of  Athens.  In  build- 
ing up  her  Empire,  Athens  had  come  into  conflict  with 
the  long-established  idea  that  every  Greek  state  had,  as 
its  deepest  right,  the  right  to  political  independence.  The 
Spartans,  in  opening  the  war,  declared  that  they  waged 
it  on  behalf  of  Greek  freedom  against  the  tyrant.  The 
majority  of  the  states  naturally  sympathized  with  this 
spirit.  We  are  to  see  in  the  Peloponnesian  War,  there- 
The  fore,  the  conflict  of  two  mighty  forces — the  one,  the 

struggle  of  pureiy  Qreek  idea  of  the  separate  and  independent  exist- 
Principies.  ence  of  city-states;  the  other,  the  world-ideal  of  empire, 
which  had  its  rise  in  the  dawn  of  human  history  (§91). 
These  two  forces  could  not  long  exist  together;  sooner  or 
later  they  must  grapple  one  with  the  other  in  a  life  and 
death  struggle. 

comparison      194.  The  situation  of  the  combatants  was  peculiar. 

blunts.0™"  Neither  could  be  attacked  in  its  strongest  point.    Athens's 

supremacy  by  sea  was  safe  from  its  enemies,  unless  they 

had  money  to  build  ships  and  hire  sailors,  and  money  was 

scarce  in  the  Peloponnesus.     The  Peloponnesians  were 

strong  on  land,  and  Athens  had  no  infantry  that  could 

The  Plan      stand  against  them.   For  the  Peloponnesians  there  was  but 

pliopon-      one  thing  to  do — invade  Athenian  territory.     But  Athens 

nesians.       itself  was  too  strongly  fortified  to  be  taken,  and  it  could 

not  be  starved  into  surrender  so  long  as  supplies  could  be 

brought  in  by  sea.    The  fields  could  be  laid  waste  by  the 

The  Plan      invaders,  but  that  was  all.     For  the  Athenians  the  plan 

of  campaign,  required  by  the  situation  and  outlined  by 

Pericles,  was  chiefly  a  defensive  one.    The  country  people, 

on  the  approach  of  the  enemy,  should  leave  their  farms, 

cheerfully  accept  the  spoiling  of  their  goods,  and  dwell 


D   I)  ^  &  \  '     ' 

<%M^  ~<&"o  iJ?^0  r  "j 
-i,  \  4^      N"  v  n  ^' 

c^" 


^^w!/^ 


« 


The  First  Period  of  the  War         163 

in  the  city  during  the  month  or  more  of  the  invasion. 
The  Peloponnesians  would  then  be  forced  to  return  home 
by  lack  of  supplies  and  the  necessity  of  tilling  their  fields, 
whereupon  the  Attic  farms  could  be  reoccupied  by  their 
owners  and  the  damages  repaired.  Resistance  to  the 
enemy  by  land  battles  would  be  avoided,  but  the  Athenian 
fleet  would  sally  out  to  strike  at  exposed  points  on  the 
enemy's  coast  and  to  ruin  the  commerce  of  cities  like 
Corinth  and  Megara.  The  commerce  of  Athens,  on  the 
contrary,  would  remain  undisturbed  by  the  conflict. 
Hence,  the  war  would  resolve  itself  into  a  question  of  en-  its  Advan- 
durance,  and  Pericles  was  confident  that  Athens,  sup-  ***** 
ported  and  enriched  by  its  enlarging  trade,  would  at  last 
emerge  triumphant.  The  resources  of  the  Peloponnesians 
would  be  exhausted  in  striking  fruitless  blows,  and  before 
long  they  would  cease  the  unprofitable  conflict. 

195.  This  plan  of  Pericles  was  followed,  in  the  main,  The  First 
during  the  first  ten  years  of  the  war  (431-421  B.C.),  and  JJ^J^ 
these  were  the  years  of  Athenian  success.    All  Attica 
gathered  behind  the  walls  of  Athens  during  the  spring 
months  of  each  year,  when  the  Peloponnesians  were  abroad 
in  the  land.     Even  a  fearful  visitation  of  the  plague,  piagueat 
which  carried  away  nearly  a  third  of  the  citizens  in  the  Athens- 
second  and  third  years  (430-429  B.C.),  shook  their  resolu- 
tion for  but  a  moment.     The  worst  blow  was  the  death  Death  of 
of  Pericles,  who  fell  a  victim  to  the  epidemic  in  429  B.C.  Pencles- 
With  the  removal  of  his  wise  counsel  and  powerful  person- 
ality it  was  difficult  for  the  democracy  to  keep  to  any 
fixed  policy.     Two  parties  sprang  up.     One  party,  headed  The  Parties 
by  Nicias,  a  wealthy  contractor  and  capitalist,  who  in 
disposition  was  cautious,  moderate,  grave  and  pious,  a  Nicias. 
fair  general  and  a  serious  politician,  was  inclined  to  bring 


164         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 


The  Pylos 
Affair. 


the  war  to  a  close  as  soon  as  it  could  be  done  without  dis- 
honor to  the  state.  The  other  party  was  led  by  Cleon,  a 
rich  manufacturer.  He  was  in  favor  of  prosecuting  the 
war  much  more  vigorously  than  the  defensive  policy  of 
Pericles  would  have  permitted.  By  his  persuasive  speech 
he  obtained  the  leadership  of  the  radical  democrats.  The 
mass  of  the  citizens  inclined  first  to  one  side  and  then  to 
the  other,  with  the  result  that  Athens  now  embarked  in 
rash,  and  sometimes  unfortunate  enterprises,  now  did 
little  more  than  stand  on  the  defensive. 

196.  The  high-water  mark  of  Athenian  success  in  the 
ten  years'  war  was  reached  in  425  B.C.     In  the  spring  of 

that  year  a  fleet 
was  sent  out  to  the 
west.  On  their  way 
the  ships  put  in  at 
the  bay  of  Pylos, 
on  the  west  of  the 
Peloponnesus  in 
Messenia.  Here 
Demosthenes, 
Athens's  most 
brilliant  general, 
was  landed  with 
a  small  force  and 
fortified  the  prom- 
ontory of  Pylos. 
On  hearing  of  this 
the  Peloponnesian 
army,  already  in 
Attica  engaged  in  its  yearly  devastation  of  the  land,  has- 
tily returned.  A  Spartan  force,  supported  by  a  fleet,  at- 


Cleon  and  Brasidas  165 

tacked  the  Athenians,  who  defended  themselves  valiantly. 
A  body  of  Spartan  hoplites  took  possession  of  the  long 
narrow  island  of  Sphacteria,  which,  from  the  point  of 
Pylos,  stretched  away  toward  the  south  and  formed  the 
outer  side  of  the  harbor.  Suddenly  the  Athenian  fleet 
reappeared,  and  drove  the  Spartan  fleet  upon  the  shore, 
thus  cutting  off  the  four  hundred  and  twenty  Spartan 
hoplites  on  the  island  from  their  fellows  on  the  main- 
land. These  men  made  up  no  small  part  of  the  citizen 
body  of  Sparta,  and  the  Spartan  authorities  made  every 
effort  to  save  them,  even  sending  ambassadors  to  Athens 
to  ask  terms  of  peace.  Thus  the  Athenians  had  the 
opportunity  to  end  the  war  with  a  brilliant  triumph,  but 
under  the  persuasions  of  Cleon  the  ambassadors  were 
denied  a  fair  hearing,  and  the  war  went  on.  On  the  cieon's 
promise  of  Cleon  that  he  would  bring  the  Spartan  hoplites  poLy. 
prisoners  to  Athens  in  twenty  days,  he  was  given  troops 
and  sent  as  general  to  Pylos.  He  was  himself  no  skilful 
soldier,  but  he  took  with  him  reinforcements  with  which 
Demosthenes  was  able  to  force  the  Spartans  to  surrender 
within  the  specified  time.  This  success  lifted  Cleon  into 
the  highest  favor  with  the  people,  and  his  policy  of  bold, 
aggressive  warfare  was  approved.  It  was  a  fatal  step. 
The  favorable  moment  for  making  peace  had  been  allowed 
to  slip  and  was  never  to  present  itself  again. 

197.  The  Peloponnesians  had  done  little  more,  year  by 
year,  than  make  invasions  into  Attica  or  ward  off  as  best 
they  might  the  advances  of  Athens  upon  the  mainland. 
But  hardly  a  year  after  the  affair  of  Pylos,  they  scored  a 
success  which  largely  made  up  for  that  disaster.     This  Brasidas 
they  owed  to  the   Spartan  general  Brasidas,  the  ablest  p"an  ls 
officer  that  had  yet  appeared  on  their  side.     Without  a 


ICG         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

fleet  the  Peloponnesians  could  make  an  attack  on  the  Athe- 
nian Empire  outside  of  Attica  at  only  one  point.  The 
genius  of  Brasidas  perceived  and  struck  at  that  one  point — 
the  Athenian  possessions  in  Macedonia  and  Thrace.  Hur- 
rying north  with  a  small  force,  he  appeared  before  the 
city  of  Acanthus,  and,  with  the  plea  that  he  had  come 
to  secure  freedom  from  the  Athenian  tyrant,  he  induced 
the  city  to  rebel.  The  Athenians  were  taken  unprepared, 
and  before  they  could  collect  themselves  the  important 
Death  of  city  of  Amphipolis  had  fallen.  In  422  B.C.  Cleon  sailed 
cieon  and  iQ  ^  ^^  ^Q  recover  these  cities.  In  a  skirmish  at  the 

Brasidas. 

gates  of  Amphipolis,  both  he  and  Brasidas  were  slain. 

198.  With  Cleon  out  of  the  way,  there  was  opportunity 
Peace.         at  Athens  for  the  lovers  of  peace  to  carry  through  their 

programme.    Accordingly,  in  421  B.C.,  a  treaty  was  signed 
for  a  fifty  years'  peace  between  Sparta  and  Athens.     The 
Result  of      war  had  closed  with  the  advantage  entirely  on  the  side 
Years61*       °^  Athens.      The  fundamental  article  of  the  treaty  was 
that  both  powers  should  give  back  what  they  had  con- 
quered from  each  other  during  the  war.     This  meant  for 
the  Spartans  the  loss  of  the  cities  in  the  north  and  for  the 
Athenians  the  setting  free  of  the  Spartans  taken  at  Pylos. 
Athens  in     But  the  Athenian  Empire  remained  practically  undimin- 
cendlnt       ished,  and  Corinth's  sea  power  and  commerce  had  been 
shattered,  while  Athens  had  enlarged  and  strengthened 
her  possessions.     On  the  other  hand,  the  purpose  of  the 
Peloponnesian  League  to  destroy  the  Athenian  Empire 
had  utterly  failed  and  the  members  of  the  League  were 
themselves  at  odds  one  with  another.     Athens  was  mis- 
tress of  the  situation. 

199.  We  must  pause  here  to  note  some  changes  in 
Athenian  life,  which  had  their  root  in  the  time  of  Pericles, 


New  Aspects  of  Athenian  Character      167 

but  bore  fruit  during  the  years  of  war.     We  have  seen  changes  in 
(§§  167-171)  how  democracy  under  Pericles  was  perfected,  xem^and 
The  people  ruled  directly,  and  politics  became  the  passion  Spirit, 
of  the  citizens.     To  guide  the  people  successfully  one 
must  persuade  them  in  public  assembly;  he  who  would 
win  them  to  his  way  of  thinking  and  acting  must  be  able 
to  argue  better  than  his  opponents.    To  be  a  good  orator 
was  indispensable  for  a  politician.    To  meet  this  demand 
teachers  sprang  up  who  professed,  among  other  things, 
to  make  one  skilful  in  the  art  of  persuasion.     These  were  Rise  of 
the  Rhetoricians  and  the  Sophists.    They  were  immensely  ridans'and 
popular  at  Athens.     Men  learned  from  them  how  to  pre-  sophists, 
sent  arguments  and  to  weigh  them,  to  put  ideas  in  a 
taking  way  in  public  speech,  and  to  reply  to  opponents 
successfully.     It  was   not  so  important   that  the  cause 
urged  was  good  or  bad,  or  that  the  arguments  presented 
in  favor  of  it  were  right  or  wrong — they  must  be  such 
that  the  people,  hearing  them,  would  think  them  sound 
and  vote  accordingly.    As  this  skill  grew,  the  people  grew 
more  critical  also.    The  public  assembly  became  a  school  The  De- 
of  debate,  where  sharp-witted  politicians  contended  before  JjJ"rgand 
a  keen  and  excited  audience.    Fine  points  were  applauded  its  Effect- 
and  dulness  hissed.    But  the  result  of  this  was  to  put  truth 
and  justice  below  shrewdness  in  debate,  to  make  adroit- 
ness and  popular  oratorical  skill  more  important  than 
character  and  honor  in  a  political  leader.     The  Athenians 
fell  into  this  fatal  error. 

200.  This  condition  of  things  is  illustrated  in  the  Com-  comedy  as 
edy  of  the  times.     Comedy,  like  Tragedy  (§138),  arose  in  SnoftS" 
connection  with  the  religious  festivals  and  dealt  familiarly  Times- 
with  the  scenes  and  events  of  common  life.     In  Athens, 
where  the  main  interest  was  politics,  it  found   its  con- 


168         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

genial  subjects  in  the  political  leaders,  who  were  held  up 
to  unmeasured  ridicule  amidst  the  unrestrained  laughter 
Aristoph-     of  the  audience.     The  greatest  comic  poet  of  the  day  was 
Aristophanes  (about  450-385  B.C.).     In  his  Knights  he 
satirizes  the  Demos  as  an  ill-natured  old  man,  who  is  the 
prey  of  his  villainous  slave,  the  leather- worker  (meaning 
Cleon,  who  was  a  tanner).    The  Clouds  jests  at  the  new 
learning  of   the  time.     The  Wasps  makes  fun  of  the 
Athenian  law-courts  by  a  mock  trial  in  which  justice  is 
parodied.     The  Birds  pictures  a  bird-city  "Cloudcooc- 
kootown"  where  the  bustle  and  excitement  of  Athens  are 
kept  out.    The  Frogs  describes  the  adventures  of  Diony- 
sus, who  goes  to  Hades  (the  underworld)  to  find  a  poet, 
and  is  in  doubt  whether  to  bring  back  ^schylus  or  the 
favorite  dramatist  of  the  time,  Euripides.     He  finally  de- 
cides for  the  former.     All  these  and  the  other  comedies  of 
Aristophanes  are,  in  spite  of  their  coarseness  and  personal 
abuse,  works  of  permanent  power  because  of  their  rol- 
licking humor  and  vigor,  interspersed  with  passages  of 
wonderful  lyric  beauty.     The  strange  thing  is  that  the 
Athenians  were  willing  to  listen  to  such  satires  on  their 
life  and  such  caricatures  of  their  statesmen,  to  laugh  at 
their  leaders  one  day  and  follow  them  the  next. 
Effect  of          201.  The  culture  of  Athens,  fed  by  architecture,  paint- 
Morai^and  *n§  an(^  sculpture,  by  the  spectacles  of  the  tragic   and 
Religion.      comic  stage,  and  stimulated  by  the  stirring  political  activ- 
ity, could  not  fail  to  have  its  influence  on  religion  and 
morals.     It  is  true  that  most  men  were  too  busy  about 
politics  to  trouble  themselves  as  to  whether  their  notions 
Philosophy    about  the  gods  would  stand  the  test.     But  a  few  could 
unsettles      not  &VQfa  qUestiOning.     Pericles  gathered  about  him  men 
Mmds         like   the  philosopher  Anaxagoras,  who,  following   after 


Philosophy    Undermines  Religion      169 

the  earlier  thinkers  (§  122),  thought  of  the  world  as  formed 
not  from  a  single  source,  but  from  several  original  elements, 
one  of  which  is  "mind,"  that  puts  all  things  together. 
He  regarded  the  sun  and  moon  as  great  balls  of  stone. 
The  speed  of  the  sun  had  turned  it  into  a  glowing  mass. 
Another  philosopher,  Heraclitus,  did  not  believe  that 
there  was  anything  permanent  in  the  world.  "All  things 
flow,"  he  said,  or  "all  things  are  burning."  The  only 
reality  is  the  fact  of  change.  Such  ideas  overturned  the 
old  faith.  Those  who  held  them  tried  to  find  solider 
ground  to  stand  on  than  was  supplied  by  the  religion  of 
the  day  and  to  clear  men's  minds  from  its  superstitions. 
Pericles  sympathized  with  this  aim,  but  he  did  not  carry 
the  citizens  along  with  him.  The  old  religion  was  sacred 
to  them  and  they  feared  and  hated  the  philosophers  who  Andim- 
attacked  it.  Anaxagoras  was  banished  from  Athens  in  tatesThem- 
434  B.C.  for  his  "impiety."  In  fact,  these  ideas  did  not 
make  men  better,  because  they  shattered  faith  in  religion, 
on  which  people  depended,  and  put  nothing  in  its  place. 
Nor  did  the  prevailing  interest  in  politics  help;  it  rather 
harmed.  Men  grew  hard  and  grasping  in  their  ambi- 
tions; their  love  of  country  made  them  selfish  in  her 
defence  and  for  her  glory.  Someone  has  called  attention  Dark  side 
to  three  dark  spots  upon  this  enlightened  Athenian  so-  °|a^the 
ciety:  (i)  The  putting  of  slaves  to  torture  before  taking  character, 
their  testimony  in  a  court  of  law;  (2)  the  ruthless  slaughter 
of  prisoners  taken  in  war,  and  the  selling  of  captive  women 
and  children  into  slavery;  (3)  the  want  of  respect  for  old 
age.  We  have  already  observed  the  position  of  woman 
(§  179).  In  all  this  we  must  not  judge  too  harshly,  but 
rather  remember  that  people  do  not  go  forward  in  all 
things  at  one  time.  In  Athens  the  new  learning  was  break- 


170         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

ing  down  the  old  customs  before  building  up  new  ones. 
While  the  childish  things  of  the  old  religion  and  morals 
were  being  put  away,  more  reasonable  ideas  were  slow 
in  gaining  ground. 

character-       2O2.  Four  great  men  of  this  period  illustrate  the  spirit- 
Rgures.       ua^  temPer  °f  Athens  in  its  lighter  and  darker  sides. 
Thucyd-          203.    Thucydides*     (about   471-398    B.C.)    was    the 
ides.  Athenian  general  who,  failing  to  keep  Brasidas  out  of 

Amphipolis  (§  197),  was  banished  from  Athens  and  was  in 
exile  for  twenty  years.  He  improved  this  time  in  gather- 
ing materials  for  and  writing  a  History  oj  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War.  He  wrote  during  the  latter  years  of  Herod- 
otus (§  185),  but  a  whole  world  separates  their  Histories 
compared  from  one  another.  Herodotus  describes;  Thucydides 
Herodotus.  &ves>  tne  mner  meaning.  Herodotus  tells  a  story  because 
of  his  interest  in  it;  Thucydides  tells  nothing  but  what  he 
knows  to  be  true.  Herodotus  enjoys  his  work  and  wants 
others  to  be  entertained  also;  Thucydides  writes  for  the 
A  scientific  instruction  of  men  who  take  things  seriously.  In  other 
tonan.  worcjSj  Thucydides  has  no  sentiment,  imagination,  or  hu- 
mor; he  is  intensely  keen  and  hard.  He  reveals  what  is 
base  and  selfish,  true  and  heroic  in  his  characters  in  a 
masterly  fashion,  but  without  praise  or  blame.  Every- 
thing he  handles  is  treated  from  the  purely  political  point 
of  view.  You  learn  nothing  directly  of  the  religious,  eco- 
nomic, or  social  life  of  his  day.  His  style  is  strong,  con- 
cise, sometimes  obscure,  often  eloquent.  The  History 
reaches  its  height  in  the  account  of  the  expedition  to  Syra- 
cuse in  the  seventh  Book. 

Euripides.         204.  Euripides  (about  480-406  B.C.)  was  the  supreme 
tragic  poet  of  the  war-time.     He  had  thought  deeply  upon 

*  Not  the  same  as  the  son  of  Melesias  (§  190). 


Euripides  and  Socrates  171 

all  the  problems  raised  by  the  new  learning  and  used  his 
wonderful  imaginative  power  in  presenting  them  through 
his  tragedies.  He  was  the  poet  of  democracy,  but  of  a 
glorified  democracy  which  had  a  deep  feeling  for  woman 
and  the  slave.  Woman's  heroism  and  devotion  form 
the  kernel  of  his  Ipkigenia,  and  Alcestis.  The  tragedy 
of  common  life  is  seen  in  the  Electro,.  He  introduces 
the  slave  and  the  beggar  to  show  that  they,  too,  have  hearts 
that  can  bleed.  Toward  the  popular  religion  he  stands  in 
an  attitude  partly  of  abhorrence  and  partly  of  sympathy. 
His  Baccha  is  a  powerful  picture  of  the  madness  and 
sublimity  of  the  worship  of  Dionysus  (§  124).  Men  were 
at  once  charmed  by  the  magic  and  pathos  of  his  poetry  and 
repelled  by  the  boldness  and  novelty  of  his  thoughts.  In  all 
this  he  reveals  himself  as  a  son  of  his  time — of  the  restless, 
passionate,  practical,  sensitive,  brutal  Athens  of  the  war. 

205.  One  of  the  most  picturesque  personalities  of  the  Socrates 
time  was  Socrates  (about  469-399  B.C.).  Of  a  burly, 
ungainly  figure,  with  bulging  eyes,  flat  nose  and  thick 
lips,  he  could  be  seen  at  all  times  on  the  streets,  as  he 
gathered  about  him  a  delighted  group  whom  he  engaged 
in  conversation,  drawing  them  on  by  simple  questions  to 
consider  the  deepest  problems  of  life.  He  had  taken  the 
step  which  all  Athens  needed  to  take — from  the  enjoy- 
ment of  material  prosperity  and  the  passion  for  politics  to  A  Moral 
the  search  for  right  living.  Athens  had  learned  the  good-  pher 
ness  of  greatness;  he  would  teach  her  the  greatness  of 
goodness.  He  found  true  knowledge  in  the  study  of  his 
own  heart  and  the  testing  of  his  own  ideals.  The  old 
motto,  "Know  thyself,"  was  the  text  of  all  his  preaching. 
In  this  work  he  felt  himself  commissioned  from  above;  a 
divine  spirit  goaded  him  on  and  inspired  him.  By  his 


172         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

sharp  and  searching  talk  he  irritated  the  self-satisfied 
democracy,  whose  leaders  hated  to  be  made  fools  of  by 
him.  With  unshrinking  courage,  he  persisted  in  his 
thankless  task  and  spared  none  of  the  notions  held  dear 
by  Athens.  "Politicians,"  he  cried,  "all  flatterers,  cooks, 
confectioners,  tavern-keepers,  whom  have  they  made 
better?  They  have  filled  the  city  with  harbors,  docks, 
walls,  tributes  and  such  trash,  instead  of  with  temperance 
and  righteousness."  For  his  own  time  he  was  a  prophet 
crying  in  the  wilderness;  one  excitement  the  more  for 
sensation-loving  Athens.  But  his  work,  although  under- 
taken too  late  for  the  salvation  of  his  own  generation, 
was  destined  to  abide  for  all  time. 

Aicibiades.  2o6.  Among  those  who  gathered  about  Socrates,  pro- 
fessing discipleship,  was  the  most  brilliant  young  Athenian 
of  the  time,  Alcibiades.  All  the  vices  and  virtues  of 
unites  the  the  Athens  of  the  war  were  summed  up  in  him;  he  is  the 
SnrtS™"  exemplar  at  once  of  her  glory  and  her  shame.  With  him 
Politics.  we  pass  from  the  spiritual  forces  of  the  time  to  one  of  its 
most  potent  political  leaders,  and,  therefore,  take  up  again 
the  thread  of  the  history.  A  relative  of  Pericles,  a  true 
aristocrat,  wealthy  and  handsome,  Alcibiades  was  the 
hope  of  the  friends  of  that  great  statesman  and  the  true 
heir  of  his  ideas.  He  took  up  the  interests  of  the  people, 
posing  as  a  radical  of  the  radicals.  His  education  was  the 
best  the  age  could  offer,  and  he  shared  in  all  the  advanced 
opinions  of  his  day.  He  was  the  idol  of  the  people,  yet 
respected  nobody  but  himself;  the  teaching  of  Socrates 
accomplished  little  for  him  beyond  confirming  him  in  his 
egotism  without  leading  him  on  to  self-improvement. 
On  the  death  of  Cleon  (§  197)  he  sprang  into  the  vacant 
place  as  leader  of  the  radical  democracy. 


PLATE  IX 


THE  LAOCOON   GROUP 


The  Years  of  the  Peace  173 

207.  The  long-desired  peace  with  the  Peloponnesian 
League  (§  198)  was  followed  by  a  union  between  Sparta 
and  Athens,  from  which  the  allies  of  Sparta  were  excluded, 
because  they  refused  to  accept  the  peace.  Apart  from 
the  two  powerful  states  now  at  one,  they  could  do  nothing.  The  Years 
Hence,  a  long  period  of  rest  and  recovery  from  the  waste  pfe]j£  False 
and  turmoil  of  war  seemed  at  hand.  But  the  prospect 
was  not  realized;  the  fifty  years'  peace  was  dead  from  its 
birth.  Formally,  it  endured  for  six  years,  years  in  which 
there  was  constant  turmoil  and  fighting  somewhere  in  causes  of 
Greece.  The  causes  of  this  were  threefold:  (i)  In  451  B.C.  Trouble- 
Sparta  and  Argos  had  concluded  a  thirty  years'  peace, 
which  now  was  just  at  an  end.  Argos,  left  alone  during 
these  years,  had  grown  strong  and  was  ready  to  enter  the 
political  field.  The  other  Peloponnesian  states,  aban- 
doned by  Sparta,  entered  into  a  league  with  the  new  power 
and  prepared  to  turn  against  their  old  leader.  (2)  The 
Spartans  failed  to  carry  out  the  terms  of  the  peace,  as  they 
did  not  give  back  to  Athens  the  captured  cities.  This 
caused  dissatisfaction  at  Athens.  (3)  The  strife  of  par- 
ties at  Athens  was  intensified  by  Alcibiades,  who,  as  leader 
of  the  war  party,  sought  to  destroy  the  good  understand- 
ing between  Sparta  and  Athens  established  by  the  peace 
party.  Alcibiades  hoped,  by  renewing  the  war  with  Sparta, 
to  place  himself  at  the  head  of  affairs,  bring  victory  to  Ath- 
ens and  glory  to  himself.  He  induced  the  Athenians  to  ally 
themselves  with  the  Argive  League.  Finally,  Sparta  came  Mantinea, 
to  a  battle  with  the  League  at  Mantinea,  and  defeated 
them  (418  B.C.);  the  league  was  forthwith  broken  up. 
Yet,  even  now,  Athens  and  Sparta  did  not  begin  to  fight. 
Each  was  at  heart  not  unwilling  to  keep  the  peace.  Each 
was  ready  for  a  convenient  opportunity  for  war. 


174         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 


The 

Athenian 

Expedition 

against 

Syracuse. 


Condemna- 
tion and 
Flight  of 
Alcibiades. 


Renewal  of 
the  War. 


208.  The   opportunity  was   offered  by  Athens.    Her 
commercial  activity  in  the  West  had  long  been  hindered 
by  the  rivalry  of  Syracuse.      Just  at  this  time  the  rapid 
extension  of  her  power  induced  some  neighboring  cities 
of  Sicily  to  call  on  Athens  for  help.  Alcibiades  persuaded 
the  people  to  send  against  Syracuse  an  expedition,  which 
set  sail  in  415  B.C.     It  was  the  finest  fleet  Athens  ever  put 
upon  the  sea  and  taxed  her  resources  heavily.     It  con- 
sisted of  134  triremes,  20,000  seamen,  and  an  army  of 
6,430  soldiers.     The  command  was  not  intrusted  to  Alci- 
biades alone,  but  was  divided  between  himself,  Nicias 
and  Lamachus.    One  morning  just  before  the  fleet  sailed, 
the  Athenians  were  startled  to  find  that  the  sacred  im- 
ages, called  Hermse,  which  stood  along  the  streets  of  the 
city,  had  been  wantonly  disfigured.     The  attempt  was 
made  to  fasten  the  guilt  for  this  outrage,  and  other  similar 
sins  against  religion,  upon  Alcibiades  and  his  friends,  but 
a  decision  on  the  matter  was  postponed  till  he  returned. 
However,  he  had  hardly  reached  Sicily  when  he  was 
ordered  to  come  to  Athens  to  stand  trial.     Fearing  for  his 
life,  he  escaped,  and  after  a  short  time  found  a  refuge  at 
Sparta,  where  he  sought  every  means  to  bring  ruin  upon 
his  native  city. 

209.  At  last,  in  414  B.C.,  under  the  impulse  of  the  war 
spirit,  the  Athenians  took  the  bold  step  of  making  a  descent 
upon  Spartan  soil.     This  decided  the  Spartans  for  war. 
They  sent  a  small  force  to  the  aid  of  Syracuse  under  a 
valiant  and  able  general  named  Gylippus  and  prepared 
again  to  invade  Attica. 

210.  Meanwhile  the  expedition  against  Syracuse  was 
faring  badly.     Lamachus  was  dead  and  Nicias  was  left 
in  sole  command.    He  sent  back  to  Athens  for  reinforce- 


The  Syr acusan  Expedition  175 

ments.  In  spite  of  some  unpleasant  surprise  at  this  news, 
Athens  could  not  draw  back,  and  her  most  brilliant  general, 
Demosthenes,  was  sent  out  with  73  ships  and  an  army  of 
20,000  men  gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  Athenian  Em- 
pire. But  his  help  was  in  vain.  The  honest  but  incompe-  The  Disas- 
tent  Nicias  had  lost  his  opportunity  to  capture  the  city  Syracuse 
and  attempted  a  siege.  The  Syracusans  gathered  courage 
and  strength  with  the  coming  of  Gylippus.  After  a  vain 
attempt  to  storm  their  works,  Demosthenes  urged  a  retreat, 
but  Nicias  delayed  until  it  was  too  late.  At  the  last  the 
Athenian  army  was  scattered,  the  two  generals  captured 
and  put  to  death,  the  soldiers  thrown  into  the  stone- 
quarries,  where  many  perished  of  hunger;  the  survivors 
were  sold  as  slaves  (413  B.C.). 

211.  The  Syracusan  expedition  was  the  crisis  of  Athens,   its  vital 
With  its  failure  the  Athenian  Empire  was  doomed.     The  ^f" 
astonishing  thing — and  it  exhibits  the  spirit  and  resources 

of  the  city  most  clearly — is  that  Athens  fought  the  Pelo- 
ponnesians  ten  years  longer  before  she  fell. 

212.  The  Spartans,  on  the  advice  of  Alcibiades,  had  Spartans 
occupied  a  permanent  stronghold  in  Attica  at  Decelea, 
fifteen  miles  north  of  Athens,  at  the  head  of  the  valley  of 

the  Cephissus.  Thereby  the  city  was  in  a  permanent 
state  of  siege;  the  income  from  the  country  was  cut  off; 
the  slaves  escaped  to  the  enemy  in  great  numbers,  and  all 
work  suffered  correspondingly.  Nevertheless,  Athens 
was  still  mistress  of  the  sea,  and  the  war  was  likely  to  run 
the  same  course  as  before,  except  that,  in  the  weakened 
condition  of  both  parties,  the  same  indecisive  result  might 
be  expected  to  arrive  much  sooner. 

213.  What  made  the  difference  and  ended  the  war  with 
the  complete  overthrow  of  Athens  was  that  Persia  took  a 


176         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 


Appearance 
of  Persia 
on  the 
Scene. 


What  it 
Meant. 


Two  Peri- 
ods of 
Persian 
Activity. 


A  New  Sit- 
uation— 
Naval  Bat- 
tles. 


hand  in  it.  Artaxerxes  I.,  the  maker  and  lover  of  peace, 
was  dead,  and  his  son  Darius  II.  was  on  the  throne  (424- 
405  B.C.).  His  satraps,  Pharnabazus  and  Tissaphernes, 
were  directed  to  recover  the  Great  King's  possessions  on 
the  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  Persia  had  what  the  Greeks 
lacked — money.  With  money  the  Peloponnesians  could 
build,  equip  and  maintain  a  fleet,  and  meet  Athens  on  the 
sea.  This  meant  for  Athens  the  cutting  off  of  her  com- 
merce, the  diminishing  of  her  resources,  the  revolt  of  her 
allies  and,  without  Persian  money,  the  downfall  of  her 
Empire.  Thus  it  came  about  that  Persia  in  the  last  years 
of  the  very  century  the  beginning  of  which  had  seen  her 
repulse  and  defeat,  decided  the  fate  of  her  victor. 

214.  There  were  two  periods  of  Persian  interference 
in  the  war.     First,  the  satraps,  while  inclining  to  Sparta 
and  setting  her  up  on  the  sea,  also  gave  sufficient  help  to 
Athens  to  enable  her  to  continue  the  struggle.     The  design 
was  to  weaken  both  sides  until  Persia  could  step  in  and 
overpower  both.     This  period  closed  in  408  B.C.,  when 
Cyrus,  the  king's  younger  son,  superseded  Tissaphernes 
in  command  of  the  Asia  Minor  provinces  and  took  defi- 
nitely the  side  of  Sparta.    That  stand  speedily  brought 
about  the  fall  of  Athens.    After  all,  therefore,  it  was 
Persia,    and   not   Sparta,   that   destroyed   the   Athenian 
Empire. 

215.  Another  new  feature  of  this  period  of  the  war  was 
that  the  battles  were  now  fought  on  the  sea.     Pelopon- 
nesian  fleets,  sustained  by  Persian  money,  appeared  in 
the  ^Egean.     The  vital  points  of  attack  were  (i)  the  cities 
of  the  Ionian  coast  and  the  islands,  where  were  the  strong- 
est subject  cities  of  the  Athenians,  and  (2)  the  regions 
of  the  Hellespont,  the  control  of  which  would  cut  Athens 


The  Fall  of  Athens 


177 


off  from  her  chief  food  supply.  The  appearance  of  the 
Peloponnesians  was  the  signal  for  revolt  from  Athens. 
Chios  and  Rhodes  were  lost.  The  entire  Ionian  coast 
passed  over  into  Persian  hands.  Samos,  alone  of  all 
the  great  cities,  remained  faithful.  The  fiercest  struggle 


was  waged  in  the  north.     Success  leaned  now  this  way, 
now  that.     The  Athenians  won  the  battle  of  Cyzicus  (410 
B.C.)  and  lost  that  of  Notium  (407  B.C.).    With  a  great 
effort,  they  gathered  another  fleet  and  won  the  brilliant 
victory  of  Arginusae    (406  B.C.),  but  their  last  fleet  was  The  Deci- 
annihilated    at   ^Egospotami  (405  B.C.),  and  the  Helles-  8iveStroke- 
pont  was  lost.     This  was  followed  by  the  surrender  of 
Athens  (404  B.C.),  the  entrance  of  the  Peloponnesians  Fail  of 
and  the  pulling  down  of  the  long  walls — a  day  of  tri-  Athens- 
umph  for  Sparta,  heralded  as  "  the  beginning  of  freedom 
for  Greece." 
216.  The  two  chief  actors  during  these  years  were  the 


178         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 


Career  of 
Alcibiades. 


Lysander, 
the  Spartan 
Leader. 


Athens 
during  this 
Period  of 
the  War. 


Athenian  Alcibiades  and  Lysander  the  Spartan.  Alci- 
biades went  from  Sparta  (§  208)  to  the  Ionian  coast, 
where  he  became  the  confidant  of  Tissaphernes.  But 
the  desperate  situation  of  the  Athenians  seemed  to  him  to 
afford  an  opportunity  to  help  them  as  well  as  glorify  him- 
self, and  we  find  him,  by  411  B.C.,  back  on  the  Athenian 
side.  But  even  his  brilliant  genius  could  not  save  Athens. 
Shortly  after  the  war  was  over,  he  was  murdered  by  the 
Persians  among  whom  he  had  taken  refuge.  Lysander 
was  the  Spartan  Alcibiades,  a  brilliant,  cruel,  selfish  politi- 
cian and  general.  His  purpose  was  the  same  as  that  of  his 
Athenian  contemporary,  to  help  his  state  with  the  idea  of 
making  himself  the  first  man  in  it.  As  the  friend  of  Cyrus, 
he  wielded  Persian  influence  in  behalf  of  Sparta  and  won 
the  final  victory  which  brought  Athens  low.  At  the  close 
of  the  war,  he  was  the  greatest  man  in  Greece,  and  all 
his  ambitions  seemed  about  to  be  fulfilled. 

217.  Nothing  in  history  is  more  amazing  and  heart- 
rending than  the  spectacle  of  Athens  during  these  ten 
years.  It  is  amazing  to  see  the  democracy  struggling 
on  with  stern  determination  against  an  inevitable  fate, 
spending  their  last  resources  to  equip  a  fleet,  and  on  its 
destruction  making  yet  another  desperate  effort  to  face 
their  foes,  and  yielding  only  when  the  treasury  was  empty, 
the  citizen  body  reduced  to  a  fraction  of  its  numbers,  the 
subject  cities  lost,  the  food  supply  cut  off,  the  people  per- 
ishing from  famine.  The  pitiful  side  of  the  situation  was 
the  breaking  out  of  political  conflicts  among  the  citizens. 
Patriotism  had  degenerated  into  selfish  politics,  in  which 
unprincipled  leaders  intrigued  for  place  and  power.  In 
411  B.C.  an  attempt  to  substitute  for  the  democracy  the 
rule  of  four  hundred  leading  citizens  succeeded  for  a  time. 


Causes  of  Athenian  Ruin  179 

Secret  political  clubs  flourished,  their  weapons  slander 
and  murder,  their  purpose  the  overthrow  of  the  constitu- 
tion. No  one  could  be  trusted  in  the  affairs  of  state. 
Self-interest  was  the  rule  of  public  conduct. 

218.  In  this  decay  of  political  integrity  and  patriotism  Moral 
we  find  the  fundamental  cause  of  the  fall  of  Athens.   There  *?a"ses  of 

Athenian 

were,  indeed,  serious  defects  in  the  Athenian  constitution,  Ruin, 
the  chief  of  which  was  the  inequality  of  the  burdens  borne 
by  citizens.  The  rich  were  called  on  for  large  contribu- 
tions for  the  support  of  the  state  (§  187),  while  the  poor, 
having  equal  rights,  were  paid  for  their  service.  The  at- 
titude of  Athens  toward  her  subject  cities  was  also  a  fun- 
damental weakness  in  her  foreign  policy  (§  164),  so  that 
in  her  dire  extremity  they  deserted  her.  But  none  of 
these  things,  not  Athenian  democratic  institutions,  nor 
the  superiority  of  Sparta,  nor  the  money  of  Persia,  brought 
her  low.  The  want  of  uprightness  and  honesty  in  her 
leaders;  the  preferring  of  cleverness  to  character;  the 
placing  of  self  and  party  above  country  and  duty — this 
was  the  dry-rot  at  the  heart  of  Athens  that  finally  brought 
the  imperial  structure  to  ruin.  Far  more  instructive  than  its  Lesson, 
any  lessons  from  the  Eastern  Empires  are  the  magnificent 
achievement  and  the  pitiful  collapse  of  the  Athenian 
Empire. 

219.  The  terms  on  which  Sparta  received   the  sub-  Terms  of 
mission  of  Athens  were  these:  the  fortifications  of  the  sunder. 
Piraeus  and  the  long  walls  were  to  be  pulled  down;  all 

the  ships  but  twelve  were  to  be  given  up ;  all  exiles  were  to 
return ;  the  supremacy  of  Sparta  was  to  be  acknowledged ; 
the  friends  and  foes  of  the  Spartans  were  to  be  Athens's 
friends  and  foes,  and  war  contributions  of  money  and 
men  were  to  be  made  when  Sparta  demanded  them. 


180         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

The  These  conditions  reveal  the  Spartan  programme,  (i)  to 

Pro-  secure  for  all  Greek  cities  freedom  from  outside  interfer- 

gramme.      ence — £Qr  ^^  purpose  Athens  was  made  powerless,  (2)  to 

establish  Sparta's  headship  over  all  these  cities  in  the  spirit 

of  the  old  Peloponnesian  League  (§  132). 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 
II.    THE  GREEK  EMPIRES 

x.  The  Beginnings  of  Greece  and  its  Expansion. 

a.  THE  FIRST  ATTEMPTS  AT  EMPIRE. 

(a)  The  Persian  Wars.  (6)  The  Rise  of  the  Athenian  Empire:, 
(c)  The  Age  of  Pericles,  (d)  The  Peloponnesian  War — its  occa- 
sion, Corinth,  Corcyra  and  Athens — unjustifiable  yet  unavoidable 
—  combatants  and  their  plans  compared  —  First  period  (plague, 
death  of  Pericles,  the  new  leaders,  the  Pylos  affair,  Brasidas  and 
the  north,  death  of  Brasidas  and  Cleon,  peace,  outcome)  — Second 
period — Athenian  temper  and  spirit  (sophists,  popular  debates, 
comedy,  unsettling  of  morals  and  religion,  change  of  character, 
Thucydides,  Euripides,  Socrates,  Alcibiades) — political  events  of 
the  peace  period  (Argos,  Mantinea,  Syracusan  expedition) — Third 
period  (the  Spartan  plan,  appearance  of  Persia,  significance,  two 
periods,  naval  battles,  fall  of  Athens,  Lysander  and  Alcibiades, 
cause  of  Athenian  ruin,  terms  of  surrender). 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  are  the  following  famous: 
Nicias,  Demosthenes,  Brasidas,  Gylippus,  Thucydides,  Soc- 
rates, Euripides,  Cyrus  the  Younger,  Lamachus?  2.  What 
events  are  connected  with  the  following:  Amphipolis,  Mantinea, 
Decelea,  >£gospotami  ?  3.  What  is  meant  by  Sophist,  Hermae, 
Demos,  "all  things  flow"?  4.  What  are  the  dates  of  the  three 
periods  of  the  war?  of  Pylos,  Syracusan  Expedition,  JEgos- 
potami? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  Themistocles  (§§  145, 
162,  166)  and  Alcibiades  as  political  leaders.  2.  Compare  the 
Athenian  method  of  declaring  war,  making  peace  and  appoint- 
ing generals  with  our  own. 


Sparta  s  Imperial  Ambitions  181 

TOPICS     FOR     READING    AND     ORAL  REPORT.       I.  The 

Peloponnesian  War:  Preliminaries  and  First  Period.  Bury,ch. 
10;  Zimmern,  ch.  15;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  217-235;  Botsford,  pp. 
190-205.  2.  The  Second  Period:  the  Sicilian  Expedition, 
Bury,  pp.  458—484;  Zimmern,  pp.  270—282;  Shuckburgh,  pp. 
238-248;  Botsford,  pp.  208-216.  3.  The  Third  Period.  Bury, 
pp.  484-506;  Zimmern,  ch.  17;  Botsford,  pp.  227-238;  Shuck- 
burgh, pp.  248-259.  4.  The  New  Thought  at  Athens.  Botsford, 
pp.  217-227.  5.  The  Sophists.  Bury,  pp.  385-389.  6.  Aris- 
tophanes. Jebb,  pp.  96-100;  Capps,ch.  u;  Murray,  pp.  280- 
293.  7.  Thucydides.  Jebb,  pp.  106-109;  Capps,  pp.  317-330; 
Murray,  ch.  8.  8.  Euripides.  Jebb,  pp.  88-94;  Capps,  ch. 
10;  Murray,  ch.  12.  9.  Socrates.  Jebb,  p.  125;  Shuckburgh, 
pp.  264-266;  Murray,  pp.  170-177;  Morey,  pp.  290-291;  Bury, 


220.  Sparta's  headship  naturally  carried  with  it  the  (5)  OTHER 
reappearance  everywhere  of  that  class  of  citizens  and  of  ™PERIAL 
that  form  of  government  with  which  Sparta  was  in  sym-  TEMPTS 
pathy.     The  aristocracy  took  charge  of  affairs,  destroyed 
democracy  and  established  oligarchies  in  the  place  of  the  Renewal  of 
democratic  governments  that  characterized  Athenian  rule.   OUgarchy- 
The  usual  form  of  these  oligarchies  was  the  decarchy,  or 

the  rule  of  ten  aristocratic  citizens.  A  peculiar  form  was 
that  at  Athens,  where  thirty  men  reorganized  the  gov- 
ernment. 

221.  But  it  was  impossible  to  combine  the  two  parts  of  Failure  of 
the  Spartan  programme  (§219).  The  events  of  the  last  fifty  ^amme. 
years  made  it  difficult  to  force  the  Demos  back  into  ob- 
scurity, and  Sparta's  aristocratic  friends  were  compelled 

to  depend  on  Spartan  help  to  sustain  them  in  office.  More- 
over, Sparta  had  been  infected  by  Athens  with  the  im- 
perial fever;  her  great  general,  Lysander,  openly  worked 
to  secure  Spartan  supremacy.  Thus,  in  many  cities  the 
decarchy  had  by  its  side  a  Spartan  harmost,  or  overseer, 
at  the  head  of  a  body  of  troops,  who  represented  the  real 


182         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

power  of  the  state.  Supported  by  this  military  authority, 
the  aristocrats  took  bloody  revenge  everywhere  for  the 
wrongs  of  years,  killing  the  democratic  leaders  and  seizing 
their  property,  while  the  Spartan  commander  looked 
calmly  on  or  aided  the  avengers.  At  Athens  a  regular 
The  Thirty  reign  of  terror  was  carried  on  by  the  "Thirty"  with  the 
at  Athens.  SUpport  of  a  Spartan  garrison  on  the  Acropolis.  At  last, 
those  whom  they  had  driven  out  seized  the  Piraeus  and 
overthrew  the  tyrants.  Even  then  another  oligarchy 
would  have  been  set  up,  had  not  Pausanias,  the  Spartan 
king,  who  was  hostile  to  Lysander,  secured  for  the  Athe- 
nians freedom  to  reorganize  their  government  as  a  some- 
Lysander-s  what  conservative  democracy.  Elsewhere  Lysander  set 
Poucy.al  UP  decarchies  and  planted  Spartan  garrisons,  sailing  up 
and  down  the  ^Egean  sea,  levying  tribute  and  practically 
subjugating,  instead  of  freeing,  the  cities.  Thus  the  Greek 
world  found  that  the  victory  over  Athens  resulted  only  in 
the  setting  up  of  a  heartless  and  narrow-minded  power, 
whose  aim  was  a  supremacy  more  thorough  and  selfish 
than  ever.  This  could  not  fail  to  be  clearly  seen,  when  it 
became  known  that  the  condition  on  which  Persia  had 
taken  Sparta's  side  was  that  Sparta  should  hand  the  Greek 
cities  on  the  Asia  Minor  coast  over  to  Persia.  Not  only 
the  Spartans  then — the  Spartans  and  the  Persians  were 
lords  of  the  Greek  states. 

Affairs  m         222.  In  sympathy  with  Sparta  was  yet  another  power 

in  the  Greek  world.     Even  since  the  successful  defence 

of  Syracuse  against  the  Athenians  the  Greek  cities  of  Sicily 

had  been  living  in  peace,  with  increasing  wealth  and  pros- 

TheCar-      pcrity,  under  democratic  constitutions.     But  Carthage, 

Problem11     tne  Phoenician  metropolis  of  north  Africa,  who  had  kept 

her  hands  from  Sicily  since  the  defeat  of  Himera  (§  154), 


The  Sicilian  Empire  183 

took  advantage  of  a  local  quarrel  to  invade  Sicily  in  409  B.C. 
In  the  struggles  which  followed,  it  seemed  as  if  all  Greek 
Sicily  would  fall  under  the  Carthaginian  supremacy.  De- 
liverance was  wrought  by  a  citizen  of  Syracuse,  of  humble 
origin,  but  of  remarkable  political  and  military  gifts,  Di- 
onysius.  He  made  himself  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  and  in  a 
series  of  wars  with  the  Carthaginians  forced  them  back 
and  confined  their  possessions  to  the  western  end  of  the 
island.  During  his  long  reign  (405-367  B.C.),  Syracuse 
became  the  greatest  city  of  the  Greek  world.  Dionysius 
fortified  it  strongly,  adorned  it  magnificently  and  made  it 
the  centre  of  an  Empire  which  embraced  the  greater  part 
of  Greek  Italy,  as  well  as  islands  and  colonies  in  the  upper 
Adriatic  sea.  His  help  was  sought  and  obtained  by  the 
Spartans.  He  was  desirous  of  entering  into  close  rela- 
tions with  the  eastern  Greeks,  who  both  admired  and 
feared  him  as  a  powerful,  but  dangerous  tyrant.  His 
nature  was  cold  and  hard;  he  did  little  for  higher  culture, 
although  he  wrote  tragedies  and  thought  himself  most 
fortunate  to  have  won  the  first  prize  at  Athens  in  a  tragic 
competition.  His  merit  was  primarily  political — to  have 
saved  the  Greeks  of  the  west  from  destruction.  His 
Empire  lasted  only  a  few  years  after  his  death. 

223.  The  half-century  that  followed  the  close  of  the  Growth  of 
Peloponnesian  War  (404-355  B.C.)  is  occupied  with  the 
history  of  the  attempts  of  the  leading  Greek  states,  one 
after  the  other,  to  rule  over  the  Greek  world.     In  each 
of  these  states  were  ambitious  men  whose  ideals  were,  like 
those  of  Alcibiades  at  Athens  (§  206),  centred  on  the  su- 
premacy of  their  own  cities  under  their  personal  headship.  Lysander 
Such  a  man  was  Lysander  of  Sparta,  who  wanted  to  make  I 
Sparta  the  ruler  of  Greece  and  himself  the  ruler  of  Sparta. 


184         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

The  first  of  these  aims  he  was  accomplishing  by  forcing 
Spartan  harmosts  and  garrisons  upon  the  cities.  The 
other  he  hoped  to  gain  by  making  the  new  Spartan  king, 
Agesilaus  (399  B.C.),  a  man  small,  lame  and  apparently 
without  force,  subservient  to  himself. 

The  con-  224.  But  already  symptoms  of  discontent  with  Lysan- 
sparto  der's  selnsn  and  unpatriotic  policy  had  shown  themselves 
at  Sparta.  The  liberation  of  Athens  from  the  tyrants  by 
Pausanias  (§  221)  is  an  illustration.  Especially  the  aban- 
donment of  the  Asia  Minor  cities  to  Persia  was  felt  to  be 
unworthy,  and  their  deliverance  was  loudly  called  for. 
The  decisive  step  was  forced  by  an  unexpected  event. 
The  death  of  Darius  II  of  Persia  in  405  B.C.  brought  his 
The  Anab-  eldest  son,  Artaxerxes  II,  to  the  throne.  But  Cyrus,  the 
cTrus  younger  son,  whose  union  with  Sparta  had  brought  Ath- 
ens low  (§  214),  gathered  an  army  of  some  10,000  Greek 
mercenaries  and  100,000  Asiatics  and  started  from  Asia 
Minor  to  contest  the  throne  (402  B.C.).  The  king  met  the 
invaders  in  Babylonia  at  Cunaxa  (401  B.C.),  where  the 
Greeks  carried  all  before  them,  but  Cyrus  himself  was 
killed.  With  his  death  the  rebellion  collapsed,  the  Asiatics 
deserted  to  the  king,  and  the  Greeks  were  left  alone  in  the 
heart  of  the  Empire.  But,  though  deceived  and  harassed 
by  the  Persians,  and  their  generals  treacherously  slain, 
they  forced  their  way  back  to  the  west  through  the  north- 
ern mountains  and  reached  the  Black  sea.  They  had 
challenged  the  Great  King  at  his  very  gates  and  he  had 
been  unable  to  punish  them. 

225.  Among  the  Greeks  who  accompanied  Cyrus  was  a  young 
Athenian,  Xenophon,  a  friend  of  one  of  the  Greek  generals.  It 
was  he  who  encouraged  the  Greeks  after  the  loss  of  their  generals 
and  inspired  them  to  defy  the  king  and  attempt  the  return  march. 


Sparta's  War  with  Persia  185 

He  has  written  an  account  of  the  expedition  in  his  Anabasis,  one  of 
the  most  attractive  books  in  Greek  literature. 

226.  When  Cyrus  planned  his  rebellion,  he  sought  and  its  Effect, 
obtained  the  aid  of  Sparta.     The  failure  of  his  attempt  ^enbe" 
brought  down  Persian  wrath  upon  her.     She  was  thus  Sparta  and 
driven  to  break  with  Persia  and  strike  a  blow  for  the  free- 
dom of  the  Asia  Minor  cities.     War  began  in  400  B.C. 

In  396  B.C.  Agesilaus,  with  a  strong  army,  started  for 
Asia  Minor,  accompanied  by  Lysander,  who  expected 
to  control  the  expedition.  But  Agesilaus,  though  insig- 
nificant in  body,  was  vigorous  in  purpose  and  ambition; 
he  soon  showed  himself  the  real,  as  well  as  the  nominal, 
master,  and  Lysander's  supremacy  was  past. 

227.  The  war  with  Persia  ran  on  feebly  for  ten  years  Sparta's 
(396-387  B.C.).    Worthy  as  was  Sparta's  motive  in  wag-  ?l Greece.8 
ing  it,  she  could  not  escape  the  consequences  of  her  arbi- 
trary treatment  of  Greek  states  at  home.     Corinth  and 
Thebes,  who  had  suffered  from  her  tyranny,  joined  with 
Athens;  all  threw  themselves  on  the  side  of  Persia.    The 
conflict  on  the  sea  was  carried  on  by  a  Persian  fleet  under 

the  leadership  of  Conon,  the  Athenian  admiral.     Agesi- 
laus was  called  back  from  the  east  and  won  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  Thebans  at  Coroneia  in  394  B.C.,  but   coroneia 
the  same  year  the  Spartan  fleet  was  destroyed  at  Cnidos.  JjJdos. 
The  Ionian  cities  fell  into  the  hands  of  Persia.     The 
Persian  fleet  sailed  over  to  Greece,  where  Conon  rebuilt  the 
long  walls  of  Athens,  and  thus  the  opportunity  was  given  her 
to  become  again  an  independent  sea  power.    Sparta  gave 
up  the  contest  and  sought  peace  from  Persia  on  terms  most 
advantageous  to  herself.  The  Great  King  dictated  the  con-  The  Peace 
ditions  to  her  ambassador  Antalcidas,  and  by  387  B.C.  the  ^g"1*1 
King's  Peace  was  established  throughout  the  Greek  world. 


186         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 


A  Virtual 
Victory  for 
Sparta. 


The  Cen- 
tralizing 
Tendency 


Checked 

by 

Sparta. 


The 

Cadmeia 

Affair. 


The  royal  decree  which  gave  the  terms  of  peace  read  as  follows: 
"King  Artaxerxes  thinks  it  right  that  the  cities  in  Asia  and  the 
islands  of  Clazomenae  and  Cyprus  shall  belong  to  him;  further 
that  all  the  other  Greek  cities,  small  and  great,  shall  be  independent, 
except  Lemnos,  Imbros  and  Scyros,  which  shall  belong  to  Athens  as 
formerly.  If  any  refuse  to  accept  this  peace,  I  shall  make  war  on 
them,  along  with  those  who  have  the  same  mind,  both  by  land  and 
sea,  with  both  ships  and  money." 

228.  To  Sparta,  as  head  of  Greece,  was  given  the  task 
of  maintaining  the  peace  as  the  king's  deputy.     The  result 
was  practically  to  restore  Spartan  supremacy.     For  what- 
ever cities  had  organized  leagues  or  subjected  other  cities 
would  be  forced  by  Sparta  to  give  independence  to  those 
under  them,  while  Sparta  herself  had  a  free  hand  in  es- 
tablishing her  own  power  everywhere.     The  Asia  Minor 
cities  were,  however,  definitely  handed  over  to  Persia. 

229.  It  remained  to  be  seen  whether  Sparta's  diplomatic 
triumph  could  be  maintained  in  the  face  of  the  tendency 
to  unite  states,  which  was  steadily  making  headway  in  the 
Greek  world  against  the  old-time  principle  of  independence 
(§  193).     Everywhere   leagues   were    forming;  new    and 
larger  states  were  rising;  tyrants  were  appearing  and  gain- 
ing wider  power.     By  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  Sparta  was 
empowered  to  check  these  movements  in  her  own  interest. 
The  real  problem  was  whether  she  was  strong  enough 
to  stop  them  and  make  herself  mistress  of  Greece.     She 
bestirred  herself  with  energy.    The  opposition  in  the  Pel- 
oponnesus was  put  down.     A  league  of  the  Chalcidian 
cities  under  the  leadership  of  Olynthus  was  broken  up 
(382-379  B.C.).     A  check  was  put  on  the  Boeotian  league 
by  throwing  a  Spartan  garrison  into  the  Cadmeia,  the 
citadel  of  Thebes  (382  B.C.) — a  manifest  breach  of  the 
King's  Peace.     An  attempt  was  made  to  seize  the  Piraeus, 


The  Theban  Uprising  187 

which  the  Athenians  had  not  yet  fully  fortified  (378  B.C.), 
but  without  success. 

230.  But  such  high-handed  measures  provoked  intense  Revolt  at 
opposition.    A  conspiracy  at  Thebes,  aided  by  the  Athe-  Thebes- 
nians,  succeeded  in  driving  out  the  Spartan  garrison  and 
uniting  Bceotia  against  Sparta  (379  B.C.).     Athens  also 
declared  war  and  swept  the  Spartans  from  the  sea.    When, 

in  371  B.C.,  the  Spartan  army  under  King  Cleombrotus 
entered  Bceotia,  the  Boeotians  met  them  at  Leuctra  and  Leuctra 
inflicted  upon  them  a  smashing  defeat.  The  king  himself  Lesson, 
was  slain  and  a  thousand  Lacedemonians  with  him.  The 
prestige  of  the  Spartan  soldiery  was  destroyed.  All  Greece 
was  astounded.  The  pious  Xenophon  wrote  of  it  as  fol- 
lows: "The  Lacedemonians,  who  swore  to  leave  the  cities 
independent,  seized  the  citadel  of  Thebes,  and  they  were 
punished  by  the  very  men,  single-handed,  whom  they  had 
wronged,  though  never  before  had  they  been  vanquished 
by  any  single  people.  It  is  a  proof  that  the  gods  observe 
men  who  do  irreligious  and  unhallowed  deeds." 

231.  The  victory  of  Thebes  was  the  result,  not  of  a  Grounds 
sudden  outburst  of  irresistible  wrath  at  Spartan  oppression,  Surccesg. an 
but  of  long  military  training  and  a  new  system  of  military 
tactics  devised  and  carried  through  by  leaders  of  genius 

and  enthusiasm.  Two  great  men  had  been  created  by  the  TWO  Men 
Theban  situation — Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas.  The 
former  was  the  leader  in  the  band  of  conspirators  that 
drove  the  Spartans  out  of  Thebes,  an  intense  fiery  nature, 
of  genial  and  bold  temper;  he  gathered  the  Theban  youth 
into  the  "Sacred  Band,"  one  hundred  and  fifty  pairs  of 
friends,  skilled  in  war,  bound  by  the  holiest  of  ties  to  fight 
side  by  side  to  the  death.  Epaminondas  balanced  the 
passionate  enthusiasm  of  his  friend  by  a  philosophic  tem- 


188         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 


New  Mili- 
tary Tac- 
tics. 


The  New 

Theban 

Policy. 


Imperial- 
ism. 


per  and  the  deep  insight  of  political  and  military  genius. 
It  was  he  who  developed  the  new  tactics  that  won  at 

Leuctra.  Ordina- 
rily, in  a  Greek 
battle  the  attack 
was  made  with  the 
right  wing,  which 
sought  to  outflank 
the  enemy's  left 
wing  and  throw  it 
back  upon  the  rest 
of  the  line.  But 
Epaminondas  re- 
versed this  order 
by  making  his  left 
wing  the  fighting 
wing,  increasing  it 
to  fifty  men  deep 
instead  of  the 
usual  twelve,  and 

hurling  it  first  upon  the  enemy's  fighting  wing,  letting  the 
rest  of  the  line  follow  and  complete  the  overthrow. 

232.  The  plans  of  these  two  leaders  contemplated  not 
merely  the  freedom  of  their  city  from  Spartan  control,  but 
the  establishment  of  Theban  supremacy  over  Bceotia,  and 
even  the  substitution  of  Thebes  for  Sparta  in  the  he- 
gemony of  the  Greek  world.  They  had  nothing  to  fear 
from  Dionysius  (§  222),  who  died  in  367  B.C.,  and  whose 
successor,  Dionysius  II,  had  little  of  the  genius  and  vigor 
of  his  father.  With  Bceotia  consolidated,  they  must  gain 
control  over  the  Peloponnesus,  northern  Greece  and  the 
sea.  To  this  task  Thebes,  under  these  leaders,  gave  her- 


The  Theban  Empire  189 

self  for  ten  years  (371-362  B.C.).     In  the  north  the  tyrants  its  carry- 
of  Thessaly  were  subdued,  but  in  the  struggle  Pelopidas  mg  Out- 
was  slain  (364  B.C.).     The  attempt  to  control  the  sea 
brought  Thebes  into  conflict  with  Athens  and  led  to  no 
result.     In  the  Peloponnesus  a  better  outcome  seemed  inthepei- 
possible.     The  defeat  of  Sparta  opened  the  way  for  the  oponne8UB- 
cities,  which  she  had  oppressed,  to  make  themselves  free. 
The  Arcadians,  hitherto  split  up  into  petty  villages,  united 
in  a  common  state  life  with  its  centre  at  a  new  city,  Mega- 
lopolis, and  found  protection  and  support  from  Thebes. 
Epaminondas  marched  down  into  the  Peloponnesus,  al- 
most captured  Sparta,  freed  the  Messenians  and  set  them 
up  as  a  state.     But  eager  as  these  states  were  for  freedom, 
they  were  not  ready  to  hold  it  under  Theban  direction. 
They  turned  against  their  deliverer,  and  when  Epaminon- 
das came  down,  in  362  B.C.,  to  re-establish  Theban  author- 
ity he  found  Spartans,  Arcadians,  Athenians  and  others  in 
the  army  that  confronted  him.     The  battle  was  fought  at  Mantinea. 
Mantinea.     His  military  genius  again  gave  him  the  vic- 
tory, but  he  himself  was  sore  wounded  and  died  on  the  The  Result, 
field.     With  his  death  the  Theban  supremacy  was  shat- 
tered.    What  Thebes  had  accomplished  was  the  overthrow 
of  Sparta's  supremacy;  her  own  she  could  not  establish 
in  its  place.     Greek  unity,  so  urgently  needed  and  so 
steadily  aspired  after,  seemed  farther  off  than  ever. 

233.  Could  Athens  bring  this  about?     Such  had  been  Revival  of 
the  ambition  of  the  restored  democracy  from  the  be-  JJJJ,™" 
ginning  of  the  fourth  century.     Various  attempts  had  been 
made  to  recover  her  power  over  the  /Egean  cities.     Early 
in  377  B.C.  a  confederacy  of  Greek  cities  under  Athenian  A  Hew 
leadership  was  proposed,  with  the  ostensible  purpose  of  League- 
forcing  the  Spartans  to  leave  the  Greeks  free  and  inde- 


190         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

pendent.  No  possibility  of  Athenian  encroachment  upon 
the  rights  and  powers  of  the  allies  was  permitted.  They 
united  as  independent  states,  about  seventy  in  number, 
with  Athens  as  the  political  and  military  head.  The 
purpose  of  the  league  was  accomplished  so  far  as  it  sought 
the  overthrow  of  Sparta's  sea  power,  but  it  was  too  loose 
a  confederation  to  satisfy  Athens  or  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  time.  In  366  B.C.,  therefore,  Athens  made  a  vigorous 
attempt  to  turn  it  into  something  more  like  an  empire. 
Under  Timotheus,  the  son  of  Conon,  and  Iphicrates, 
fleets  were  sent  out  which  reduced  Samos  to  subjection 
and  established  Athenian  supremacy  in  the  Hellespont 
and  on  the  Chalcidian  peninsula.  But  opposition  was 
found  on  every  side.  Thebes  contested  the  Athenian 
claim  to  the  sea  (§232).  A  new  king  in  Persia,  Artax- 
erxes  III  (Ochus),  came  to  the  throne  in  359  B.C.,  and  his 
energetic  activity  restored  Persia  to  something  like  unity 
and  strength.  The  result  was  that  the  Greek  cities  in  the 
eastern  ^gean  fell  away  from  Athens  to  him.  The  Athe- 
nian advance  in  the  north  had  disturbed  Macedonia, 
where,  in  359  B.C.,  Philip  had  become  king.  By  clever 
diplomacy  he  outwitted  Athens  and  began  to  secure  the 
Chalcidian  cities.  Thus,  the  difficulties  were  too  great. 
In  355  B.C.  Athens  made  peace  with  her  rebellious  allies 
in  the  east  by  renouncing  her  authority  over  them;  she 
contented  herself  with  the  few  possessions  which  remained 
in  the  north,  where  her  trouble  with  Philip  was  not  yet 
settled.  Greece  was  in  confusion  still,  and  no  one  could 
see  the  end. 

234.  As  we  look  back  over  the  fifty  years  that  came  to  a 
close  with  355  B.C.,  we  notice,  in  comparison  with  the 
fifth  century,  some  significant  characteristics.  The  facts 


An  Age  of  Transition  191 

of  the  history  narrated  in  the  preceding  sections  show  very 
clearly  that  it  was  a  time  of  change  and  conflict,  without 
any  clear  aim  or  satisfactory  outcome.  The  brilliant 
career  of  Athens  with  its  imperial  aspirations  had  been 
brought  to  naught  by  the  determined  opposition  of  states 
representing  the  old  Greek  principle  of  the  separate  inde- 
pendence of  the  several  cities.  The  victory  of  Sparta  conflict 
strengthened  everything  that  gathered  about  that  princi-  owTnT 
pie — the  aristocratic  class,  the  old  religion,  the  dislike  of  New  Polit 
democracy,  the  preference  for  constitutions  like  that  of 
Sparta,  which  restrained  the  freedom  of  the  individual 
citizen  in  the  interest  of  the  state.  On  the  other  hand, 
Imperial  Athens,  though  fallen,  handed  on  the  influences 
and  ideals  which  she  had  cherished,  and  they  continued  to 
fight  for  supremacy  in  the  political  and  social  life  of  the 
time.  The  imperial  idea  was  seized  by  Sparta  and  Thebes; 
the  impossibility  of  turning  Greece  into  a  mass  of  petty, 
independent  cities  was  emphasized  by  the  various  leagues 
which  constantly  sprang  up;  the  new  thought  was  as- 
serting the  importance  of  the  individual  man  and  his  de- 
mands upon  life,  upon  the  state  of  which  he  was  a  citizen, 
upon  the  world  in  which  he  lived.  Thus  everywhere  it 
was  conflict  between  return  to  the  past  and  progress  along 
new  paths. 

235.  Everywhere  appeared  signs  that  this  was  a  time  changes  ir 
of  transition.     The  art  of  war  was  changing.     The  heavy-  ^^ 
armed  footman,  the  hoplite,  ceased  to  be  the  one  strong 
force  of  the  army;  the  light-armed  soldier,  the  peltast, 
was  found  to  be  more  and  more  useful.    It  was  a  great  shock 
to  the  military  science  of  the  time,  when  the  Athenian 
Iphicrates,  in  392  B.C.,  set  upon  a  regiment  of  Spartan 
hoplites  with  his  peltasts  and  nearly  destroyed  them  all. 


192         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

Cavalry  also  became  more  important  and  no  army  was 
complete  without  a  strong  corps.  The  new  tactics  of 
Epaminondas  were  likewise  revolutionary.  Equally  strik- 
ing is  the  almost  universal  employment  of  mercenary  sol- 
diers. The  long  years  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  bred  a 
generation  who  knew  one  thing  well — how  to  fight.  The 
losses  of  the  citizen  body  in  all  the  cities  made  it  impos- 
sible to  send  out  sufficiently  large  armies  of  citizens;  hence 
soldiers  were  hired  and  the  practice  of  selling  oneself  for 
war  was  a  very  profitable  trade.  Generals,  too,  let  them- 
selves out  for  hire  to  conduct  campaigns.  As  money  was 
scarce  in  all  the  Greek  states,  and  the  funds  for  the  pay- 
ment of  mercenaries  were  soon  exhausted,  opposing  gen- 
erals avoided  decisive  battles  and  sought  to  prolong  the 
manceuvres  until  the  opposing  force  was  disbanded  for  lack 
of  funds.  Thus  war  was  carried  on  quite  scientifically 
and  with  much  less  bloodshed. 

confusion        236.  Another   illustration   of  this   time   of  change   is 

tics>    found  in  the  politics  of  the  day.     It  is  a  mixture  of  petty 

conflicts  and  local  problems  with  great  plans  and  large 

ambitions.     The  imperial  strivings  of  each  of  the  greater 

states  were  checked  by  the  obstinate  opposition  of  smaller 

Factions,  states.  Each  state  had  its  own  war  of  factions — aristocrat 
against  democrat.  The  complicated  politics  of  the  time 
was  due  to  the  ceaseless  intrigues  of  these  little  cities,  now 
swinging  to  this  side,  now  to  that.  Fear  and  jealousy, 
ambition  and  conservatism,  were  contending  impulses  in 
every  community.  At  the  same  time  the  problems  of 
these  states  were  of  the  pettiest  order.  They  were  all 

Decline  of     reduced  in  population  and  resources.     Sparta's  legitimate 

B0edy'tlzen  citizens  at  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  numbered 
only  about  2,000.  Athens  was  hard  pressed  to  keep  up 


Art  and  Literature  193 

her  citizen  body  and  only  during  these  years  was  willing 
to  extend  the  privilege  of  citizenship  with  some  degree 
of  generosity  to  outsiders,  a  measure  in  which  she  was  fol- 
lowed by  other  states,  even  by  Sparta.  The  difficult  ques-  Problem  of 
tion  of  finance  was  a  pressing  one.  Athens  was  constantly  Fmance- 
on  the  verge  of  financial  exhaustion,  although  she  had  a 
fairly  prosperous  commercial  activity.  When  they  had 
the  opportunity,  recourse  was  had  both  by  Athens  and 
Sparta  to  plundering  defenceless  regions  and  forcing  con- 
tributions from  weaker  cities.  Piracy  was  not  uncommon. 
Sometimes  the  baser  expedient  of  robbing  temples  was 
tried.  Hence  came  the  importance  of  the  alliance  with 
Persia,  for  that  meant  Persian  gold. 

237.  The  brightest  side  of  the  life  of  the  time  appears  Art  and 
in  the  higher  spheres  of  art  and  literature.     During  these  F^J^6 
years  of  turmoil  they  went  steadily  forward.     Even  in  the 
Peloponnesian  War,  sculptors  could  put  forth  such  splen- 
did creations  as  the  Nike  ("Victory")  by  Paeonius,  set  up 
by  the  Messenians  at  Olympia.    The  greatest  sculptor 
of  the  age  was  Praxiteles,  whose  finest  work,  the  Her- 
mes, reveals  the  chief  note  of  progress.     It  consists  in  the  The  New 
freer  expression  of  human  emotion,  the  delineation  of  Sculpture 
man  as  an  individual  with  his  special  traits  and  feelings, 
contrasting  thus  with  the  more  restrained  and  heroic  ideals 
of  the  age  of  Pericles  (§  182).    As  the  Parthenon  is  the  Archi- 
finest  example  of  Periclean  architecture,  so  the  tomb  of  tecture- 
Maussolos,  satrap  and  king  of  Caria,  reveals  for  this  age 
the  union  of  sculpture  and  architecture  at  its  highest  point. 
The  greatest  artists  of  the  time  worked  upon  it.     Paint-  Painting 
ing,  also,  took  a  place  in  the  art  of  the  day  never  attained 
before.     The  houses  of  the  rich  were  adorned  by  frescoes 
and  the  works   of  great  painters.     Indeed,   everywhere 


194         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

Enrich-       greater  luxury,  a  finer  taste  in  private  life,  appeared,  illus- 
Life.'  °f        trated  in  the  pursuits  of  hunting,  in  enjoyment  of  the  coun- 
try and  agricultural  activity,  and  even  in  cookery,  all  of 
which  were  studied  as  arts  and  on  which  books  were 
written  that  have  come  down  to  us. 

intellectual       238.  Athens  was  the  bright  star  in  the  world  of  litera- 

Athenl.        ture  and  thought.     Shorn  of  her  imperial  position  in  the 

political  world,  she  laid  her  hand  of  power  upon  the  higher 

realm  of  letters  and  philosophy,  and  won  an  unquestioned 

triumph.     What  Pericles  had  claimed  (§  186)  now  came 

true.    Athens  was  the  teacher  of  Greece.     At  first  things 

seemed  to  point  in  the  other  direction.    The  backward 

look  toward  the  past,  so  characteristic  of  this  age  (§  234), 

tended  to  the  suppression  of  the  new  learning.    Indeed, 

one  awful  blunder,  worse  than  a  crime,  was  made  by  this 

Execution     reactionary  spirit  in  399  B.C.,  when  Socrates  (§  205)  was 

ites'  put  to  death  as  an  impious  and  pernicious  man.     But 

ms  disciples,  inspired  by  his  teaching,  took  up  his  work  and 

Disciples.      carrieci  on  trie  new  learning  to  higher  flights.     One  of  the 

xenophon.    most  attractive  of  these  men  was  Xenophon  (434-354  B.C.). 

It  is  said  that  Xenophon,  when  a  young  and  handsome  boy,  was 
one  day  halted  in  the  streets  of  Athens  by  Socrates,  who  asked  him 
where  various  articles  of  merchandise  could  be  bought.  He  politely 
told  him.  Then  Socrates  asked,  "But  where  can  one  get  good  and 
honorable  men?"  When  the  boy  could  not  answer,  the  philosopher 
replied,  "Follow  me,"  and  Xenophon  became  his  disciple. 

It  was  not  altogether  with  the  approval  of  Socrates  that 
Xenophon  joined  the  army  of  Cyrus  (§225),  and  the  out- 
come of  that  expedition,  while  it  brought  honor  to  the 
young  leader,  ruined  his  career  as  an  Athenian.  As  a 
friend  of  Sparta,  he  was  banished  from  Athens  and  went 


Plato  195 

to  live  on  an  estate  in  Elis  presented  to  him  by  the  Spar- 
tans. There  he  wrote  many  books.  The  most  important 
are  the  Memoirs  of  Socrates,  a  worthy  record  of  his  mas- 
ter's career  and  teachings;  the  Cyropedia,  a  kind  of  his- 
torical romance  glorifying  the  elder  Cyrus  of  Persia  (§  85); 
the  Anabasis,  which  has  already  been  referred  to  (§  225), 
and  the  Hellenica,  a  history  of  Greece  from  the  close 
of  the  Peloponnesian  War  to  the  battle  of  Mantinea.  Xen- 
ophon  is  a  typical  man  of  his  time,  a  conservative,  clear- 
headed, sensible,  healthy  nature,  roused  into  vigorous 
thinking  by  the  spur  of  Socrates,  but  unwilling  or  unable 
wholly  to  yield  to  the  impulse  of  his  master — a  son  of  pro- 
gressive Athens  taking  halting  Sparta  for  his  foster-father. 

239.  A  far  abler  disciple  was  Plato  (428-347  B.C.),  Plato, 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  philosophers  of  all  time.  He 
is  an  example  of  the  contradictions  of  this  troubled  age. 
Born  into  the  circle  of  Athenian  aristocracy,  one  of  the 
company  of  brilliant  young  men  that  surrounded  Socrates, 
he  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  politics  of  democratic 
Athens;  yet  he  was  passionately  devoted  to  the  study  of 
politics;  and  even  went  to  Syracuse,  in  the  time  of  Dionys- 
ius  II,  to  introduce  his  theories  into  actual  practice.  Of 
course  they  failed.  He  gathered  about  himself  in  Athens  His  Phi 
a  body  of  disciples.  In  opposition  to  the  material  and  losophy 
often  sordid  activities  of  his  city  and  age,  he  taught  them 
the  doctrine  that  things  on  earth  are  faint  and  faded  copies 
of  perfect  spiritual  realities  above  this  world,  abiding,  pure, 
divine.  The  perfect  life  is  that  which  comes  into  harmony 
with  these.  The  death  of  Socrates  inspired  him  to  write 
his  Apology  of  Socrates,  an  endeavor  to  present  in  sub- 
stance the  defence  which  Socrates  uttered  before  the  court 
that  condemned  him.  His  writings  took  almost  always 


196         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

the  form  of  dialogues.  They  deal  with  a  variety  of  phil- 
osophical and  political  subjects  and  are  written  in  a  poeti- 
cal prose  of  wondrous  refinement  and  fascination.  The 
Republic  pictures  his  ideal  commonwealth.  The  Phado 
offers  an  argument  for  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  The 
Symposium  discusses  love  as  the  supreme  element  in  the 
universe.  From  the  vicinity  of  his  home  to  the  gymnasium 
of  Academus,  his  school  is  called  the  "Academy." 

240.  While  possessing  nothing  like  the  genius  of  Plato, 
isocrates  more  truly  a  child  of  his  age  is  Isocrates  (436-338  B.C.). 
Indeed,  more  fully  than  any  other  writer  or  thinker,  he 
represents  the  Athens  of  the  fourth  century,  its  culture, 
its  doubts,  and  its  hopes.  He  sought  no  public  activity, 
yet  devoted  himself  to  the  training  of  men  for  public  life. 
He  taught  them  philosophy,  science  and  character.  His 
was  the  most  popular  school  and  he  the  ablest  teacher 
A  Typical  in  the  Greek  world.  As  a  literary  man  he  was  the  creator 
Ttoe°fthe  °f  a  classical  prose  style,  smooth,  liquid,  pure — possibly 
lacking  in  strength  and  fire.  As  a  political  philosopher 
his  view  was  broad  and  high.  At  first  he  hoped,  like  so 
many  men  of  his  time,  that  the  old  union  of  Sparta,  the 
land  power,  and  Athens,  the  sea  power,  of  the  Greek  world 
might  be  revived  to  be  the  salvation  of  Greece.  Such  was 
his  plea  in  his  Panegyricus,  delivered  at  Olympia  on  the 
occasion  of  the  hundredth  Olympiad  (380  B.C.).  He  rose 
to  a  higher  ideal,  the  union  of  all  Greece  under  a  single 
leader  and  the  advance  of  united  Greece  against  Persia — 
the  recovery  of  Greek  unity  and  honor.  The  trouble 
was  he  could  get  no  leader — he  summoned  one  after 
another  of  the  states  to  this  task.  But  as  his  long  life 
drew  to  a  close,  one  did  appear,  and  Isocrates  could  look 
forward  hopefully  to  the  realizing  of  his  ideal.  That 


Rise  of  Macedonia  197 

leader  was  Philip,  King  of  Macedon,  whose  career  is  a 
turning-point  in  Greek  history. 

241.  Our  study  of  the  Oriental  empires  has  shown  how  HOW  can 
with  the  decay  of  the  nations  of  culture,  there  appear  new  Reev'"dbe 
peoples,  rude  and  strong,  to  overrun  and  rule  their  weaker  and 
but  more  highly  developed  neighbors,  absorb  their  culture 

and  carry  the  world  a  stage  farther  in  the  march  of  prog- 
ress (§40).     Such  was  to  be  the  solution  of  the  problem  »ew 
of  the  Greek  world.     In  the  western  and  northern  parts  Peoples- 
of  the  Greek  peninsula  was  a  mass  of  peoples  on  the  bor- 
ders of  civilization,  becoming  slowly  affected  by  it,  form-  in  the 
ing  out  of  loose  tribal  conditions  states  of  a  steadily  in-  Northwest 
creasing  strength  and  unity.     Some  had  already  been 
drawn   into  the  circle  of  Greek  politics  and  war,  like 
yEtolia,    Acarnania  and   Ambracia.     And  now,  even  be- 
yond these,  in  the  wild  region  of  Epirus,  occupied  by  a 
mixture  of  races,  kingdoms  like  that  of  the  Molossi  began 
to  emerge.     A  new  Greece  was  rising  as  the  old  Greece 
declined. 

242.  It  was  in  the  northeast,  rather  than  in  the  west,  Rise  of 
however,  that  advance  was  more  rapid.     This  was  to  be 
expected,  since  the  eastern  coast  of  Greece  had  been  the 
scene  of  the  most  vigorous  life  from  the  earliest  period. 
Here,  lying  back  from  the  northwestern  ^Egean  and  cut 

off  from  Thessaly  by  lofty  mountains,  lay  Macedonia. 
Its  people  were  a  strange  complex  of  races :  to  the  north 
and  west  Illyrian,  to  the  east  Thracian,  mixed  with  the 
purer  Macedonian  blood,  but  all  paying  uncertain  alle- 
giance to  a  line  of  kings  whose  capital  was  at  ^gae,  far 
in  the  interior,  at  the  head  of  the  great  plain  that  stretched 
down  to  the  Thermaic  gulf.  These  kings,  handing  down 
their  throne  from  father  to  son,  steadily  grew  in  power 


198         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

Relation  and  importance.  The  position  of  Macedonia  drew  them 
:ece'  early  into  the  circle  of  Greek  politics;  it  is  their  lasting 
merit  that  they  saw  and  valued  the  importance  of  culti- 
vating relations  with  the  Greek  states.  The  first  of  the 
kings  to  come  into  historic  light  took  the  side  of  the  Greeks 
in  the  first  Persian  wars.  They  encouraged  Greek  settle- 
ments on  their  shores.  They  even  claimed  descent  from 
the  Greek  god  and  hero,  Heracles,  and  the  claim  was 
acknowledged  by  the  privilege  conferred  upon  them  of 
contesting  in  the  Olympic  games. 

243.  Brought  thus  into  close  contact  with  the  intense 
spirit  of  Greek  national  life  and  culture,  the  Macedonian 
king  and  his  people  naturally  were  inspired  to  develop 
Growth  of  their  own  nationality.  Two  things  were  necessary  for 
!fianeN°a~-  tn*s  resu^-  First,  the  loose  attachment  of  the  tribes 
tionai  Life.  Jn  the  west  and  north  must  be  turned  into  a  firm  al- 
legiance to  the  sovereign.  Second,  the  sea-coast  must 
be  secured.  The  first  of  these  was  undertaken  in  a  series 
of  military  operations  carried  on  by  king  after  king  with 
very  moderate  success.  The  second  meant  obtaining 
supremacy  over  the  flourishing  Greek  cities  which,  for 
centuries  planted  on  the  peninsulas  of  Chalcidice,  had 
monopolized  the  rich  trade  with  the  interior.  As  most 
of  the  cities  belonged  to  the  Athenian  Empire,  the  kings 
were  involved  in  difficulties  with  Athens.  This  compli- 
cation bound  them  up  even  more  closely  with  the  political 
and  military  movements  of  the  Greek  world.  Thus,  little 
by  little,  Macedonia  was  being  prepared  to  grapple  deci- 
sively with  the  problem  that  Athens,  Sparta  and  Thebes 
in  turn  had  laid  down. 

King  244.  At  this  crisis  Philip  was  on  the  throne,  a  man  in 

Phlhp'         genius  and  energy  fully  equal  to  the  situation.     He  brought 


Rise  of  Philip  of  Macedon  199 

to  a  successful  end  the  unifying  of  his  kingdom.  By  a 
series  of  tremendous  campaigns  in  west  and  north  and 
east,  he  broke  down  the  resistance  of  the  rude  and  war- 
like Illyrian  tribes,  drove  back  or  absorbed  the  Thra- 
cians  and  welded  all  into  a  living  and  concordant  unity. 
The  nation  that  sprang  into  full  life  was  animated  by  a 
common  spirit  of  military  zeal  and  personal  loyalty  to  the 
king.  A  new  army  was  formed  and  trained  to  a  perfection  His  Army, 
never  before  reached.  The  foot-soldiers  were  formed  in 
close  array  somewhat  deeper  than  the  ordinary  Greek 
hoplite  army  and  armed  with  longer  spears.  This  was 
the  Phalanx.  The  chief  reliance  was  the  cavalry,  both 
light  and  heavy  armed,  made  up  of  the  nobility,  men  in 
the  prime  of  physical  vigor  and  of  high  spirit.  In  a  battle 
their  charge  upon  the  enemy's  flank,  made  as  one  man 
with  tremendous  force,  usually  decided  the  day.  All  ad- 
vances in  the  art  of  war  made  by  the  Greeks  during  the 
preceding  years  were  brought  together  by  Philip  in  his 
military  organization.  He  had  an  abundance  of  light- 
armed  troops  and  a  splendid  siege-train.  He  himself  was 
the  animating  soul,  the  directing  genius  of  the  whole 
organization.  All  the  soldiers  were  called  "companions," 
and  the  word  well  expresses  the  relation  to  their  head 
which  he  was  able  to  inspire.  The  new  Macedonia  was  a 
nation  under  arms. 

245.  Philip  was  equally  successful  in  the  second  of  the  The  Ad- 
tasks  laid  upon  the  Macedonian  sovereign — the  securing  JJToMut. 
of  the  sea-coast.     By  a  combination  of  skilful  diplomacy 
and  vigorous  warfare  he  proceeded  to  wrest  from  Athens 
the  cities  under  her  influence  and  to  reduce  the  others  to 
subjection.     With  the  fall  of  the  most  important  of  them 
all,  Amphipolis  (357  B.C.),  he  was  master  of  the  central 


200         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

trade-routes;  the  gold  mines  on  the  northeastern  bordei 
were  secured;  the  city  of  Philippi  was  built  to  guard  them; 
a  small  navy  was  begun.  By  348  B.C.  every  Greek  city 
on  the  coast  of  Macedonia  was  in  his  hands.  The  capital 
of  his  kingdom  was  removed  from  ^gae  and  established 
farther  down  the  plain  at  Pella.  This  work  accomplished 
invited  him  to  the  other  and  greater  achievement — the 
leadership  of  Greece. 

Philip  246.  The  opportunity  came  in  an  outbreak  in  middle 

F^tho'd'in  Greece.    The  Amphictyonic  Council  (§  1 18)  had  proceeded 
Greece.        against  the  Phocians  on  a  charge  of  doing  violence  to  the 
rights  of  the  temple  at  Delphi.     On  their  refusal  to  submit, 
the  council  declared  war  against  them.     They  seized  the 
temple  and  borrowed  its  treasures  to  hire  soldiers  for  their 
The  defence.     Little  by  little  all  Greece  was  drawn  in.     The 

•^sacred  active  members  of  the  Amphictyonic  Council  were  Thebes, 
Locris  and  Thessaly.  For  Phocis  were  Athens  and  Sparta. 
The  Phocians  also  succeeded  in  gaining  the  tyrants  of 
Thessalian  Pherae  to  their  side;  this  led  the  rest  of  the 
Thessalians  to  ask  Philip  to  lead  them.  Thus  Philip 
crossed  the  border  of  Greece  and  became  master  of  Thes- 
saly (353  B.C.).  The  full  meaning  of  the  new  situation 
soon  became  clear.  Greece  was  on  the  verge  of  a  greater 
struggle  than  the  petty  Sacred  War.  Philip  had  come 
within  her  gates. 

His  247.  It  is  important  to  observe  Philip's  ideals  and  am- 

toward6       bitions.    He  was  a  true  Macedonian,  a  fearless,  impetuous, 

Greece.        relentless,  unsparing  warrior,  a  deep  drinker  and  reckless 

reveller,  yet  devoted  to  the  upbuilding  of  his  kingdom  and 

utterly  unscrupulous  as  to  the  means  of  accomplishing  it. 

At  the  same  time  he  cherished  a  strong  admiration  for 

Greece,  was  immensely  proud  of  his  Greek  descent,  and 


Ideals  of  Philip  201 

estimated  the  favor  and  recognition  conferred  by  Greece 
above  almost  everything  else  in  the  world.  Greek  culture, 
long  welcomed  at  the  Macedonian  court,  had  deeply  im- 
pressed him.  For  some  years  he  had  resided  at  Thebes  as 
a  hostage  in  the  hands  of  Epaminondas,  and  had  studied, 
not  in  vain,  the  political  situation.  He  aspired  to  be  the  His  ideal 
leader  of  Greece,  then,  not  merely  for  his  own  glory  and  fc 
that  of  Macedonia,  not  that  he  might  plant  his  foot  on  the 
neck  of  Greek  freedom,  but  rather  because  he  was,  in  a 
kind  of  romantic  reverence  for  her  ancient  fame  and  her 
immortal  culture,  conscious  of  the  dignity  and  glory  to  be 
gained  thereby.  This  feeling  seemed  to  concentrate  on 
Athens.  Although  Philip  was  constantly  at  war  with 
that  city,  he  was  ever  ready  to  make  peace  with  her,  to 
excuse  the  hostility  and  perfidy  with  which  she  dealt 
with  him  and  to  spare  her  at  the  last.  Thus  the  leader-  what  His 
ship  which  he  craved  was  for  the  purpose  of  securing  MeanT^ 
peace  among  free  Greek  communities.  He  would  have 
them  recognize  in  him  their  arbiter  and  friend.  He 
went  a  step  farther,  and  saw  in  the  unity  of  Greece,  se- 
cured by  him,  the  means  for  carrying  out  the  ideal  which 
Isocrates  had  already  described  (§  240),  the  punishment  of 
Persia  for  its  lordship  over  the  Greek  states.  It  was  with 
purposes  like  these,  in  which  the  lust  of  conquest  was 
mixed  with  the  higher  ideals  of  Greek  unity  and  suprem- 
acy, that  Philip  set  foot  upon  Greek  soil  and  began  to 
push  steadily  southward. 

248.  Who,  after  all,  could  or  would  oppose  him  ?    Had  The  ou 
not  everything  been  moving  in  the  direction  of  unity —  J^JJ^ 
Athens,  Sparta,  Thebes  seeking  to  bring  it  about  ?    Why 
not  hail  his  coming  as  a  relief  from  the  half  century  of 
turmoil   that   had  just   passed?    The   answer   to   these 


202         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

questions  is  the  same  as  that  which  was  given  to  Athens, 
Sparta  and  Thebes — Greece  will  not  submit  to  the  author- 
ity of  one.  Independence  for  the  separate  states — the 
principle  of  autonomy — was  now  to  clash  again  with  the 
impulse  to  unity.  Strange  to  say,  the  leader  in  this  last 
struggle  for  Greek  freedom  was  Athens.  We  have  already 
seen  how  Philip's  successful  activities  in  securing  the 
Athens  Macedonian  sea-coast  had  brought  him  into  conflict  with 

against  i        A    i         •  /<•  \          A  • 

Philip.  the  Athenians  (§  243).  A  vigorous  campaign  in  352  B.C. 
had  made  him  master  of  Thrace,  where  he  threatened  the 
Athenian  possessions  on  that  coast.  The  "Sacred  War" 
(§  246)  had  embittered  the  situation  still  more.  Thus  far, 
however,  Athens  had  done  little  more  than  defend  herself 
against  Macedonian  aggression.  But  now  she  entered 
upon  a  new  activity  under  the  leadership  of  Demos- 
thenes, the  most  famous  orator  of  the  ancient  world. 

Demos-  249.  Demosthenes  (384-322  B.C.)  began  the  study  and 

practice  of  oratory  under  Isaeus,  one  of  the  leading  prac- 
tical lawyers  of  Athens,  in  order  to  recover  his  property, 
of  which  in  his  orphaned  childhood  his  guardians  had 
robbed  him.  He  overcame  all  his  many  natural  defects 
by  persistent  toil,  and  in  the  process  became  not  only  a 
wonderful  speaker,  but  a  successful  politician.  His 
orations  against  Philip — called  Philippics — and  his  other 
speeches,  of  which  many  have  been  preserved,  show  a 
combination  of  close  logic,  intensity  of  spirit  and  beauty 
of  language  which  are  without  parallel.  The  most  re- 
nowned of  them  is  the  Oration  on  the  Crown,  delivered  in 
defence  of  his  policy  on  the  occasion  of  a  proposal  to  the 
people  to  offer  him  a  crown  in  reward  for  his  public  ser- 
vice (330  B.C.). 
250.  Demosthenes  had  already  advocated  a  more  vig- 


Philip  and  Demosthenes  203 

orous  war  policy  than  the  defensive  one  which  had  hitherto  He  cha 
prevailed,  but,  after  the  brilliant  successes  of  Philip,  he  5^, 
had  agreed  to  a  peace  in  346  B.C.,  which  was  sorely  needed  doman 
by  Athens.     But  when  Philip  desired  to  enter  into  closer  P 
relations  of  friendship  with  Athens,  Demosthenes  induced 
the  Athenians  to  hold  back.    Meanwhile,  Philip  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Amphictyonic  League  in  the  place  of  the 
Phocians,  and  thus  was  entered  legally  among  the  Greek 
powers.     This  was  the  opportunity  taken  by  Demosthenes 
to  launch  his  new  enterprise — the  aggressive  union  of  all 
the  Greek  states  against  the  dangerous  Macedonian  enemy. 
He  had  some  success;  states  in  the  Peloponnesus  and  on 
the  northern  .^Egean  entered  a  league.     At  last,  the  Am- 
phictyonic Council,  unsupported  by  Athens  and  Thebes, 
invited  Philip  to  lead  another  "sacred  war."   This  brought 
matters  to  a  head.     The  Thebans  joined  the  anti-Mace- 
donian union  and  prepared  to  resist  Philip's  march.    The 
decisive    battle   was    fought    in    Bceotia    at    Chaeroneia   chsero 
(338  B.C.).     The  Macedonian  cavalry  was  led  by  Philip's 
son  Alexander,  then  sixteen  years  of  age.     Demosthenes 
served  as  a  heavy-armed  soldier  in  the  Athenian  ranks. 
The  result  was  the  complete  victory  of  Philip;  the  The- 
bans were  cut  to  pieces;  the  Athenians  were  routed  and 
ran  away. 

251.  The  victory  of   Chaeroneia  meant  the  supremacy   Result: 
of  Macedonia  and  the  Macedonian  king  over  the  Greek  Jj^J 
world.     The  Greeks  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  no  city-  Greece, 
state  among  their  own  number,  but  found  a  master  in  the 
monarch  of  a  kingdom  which  they  regarded  as  outside 
their  circle  and  had  only  grudgingly  admitted  among 
them.     But  Philip  had  no  intention  of  playing  the  tyrant. 
He  wanted  to  be  the  acknowledged  head  of  free  communi- 


204         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

ties  united  of  their  own  accord  under  his  leadership.  Ac- 
cordingly, he  summoned  the  states  to  meet  at  Corinth  and 
form  a  Confederacy.  In  337  B.C.  he  announced  at  the 
meeting  his  purpose  to  lead  them  against  Persia.  It  was 
necessary,  however,  to  establish  Macedonian  garrisons  in 
strategic  points;  for  the  Greeks  were  unwilling  even  now 
to  accept  Macedonian  supremacy.  The  outcome,  how- 
ever, was  certain,  since  the  power  of  Philip  was  too  great  to 
be  successfully  resisted.  Opposition  to  it  could  only  end 
in  disaster,  in  the  renewal  of  strife,  which  was  ruinous  to 
the  states  themselves,  and  could  not  accomplish  anything 
except  bring  down  the  wrath  of  Philip  and  sorer  punish- 
ment at  his  hands. 

OUTLINE    FOR   REVIEW 
II.    THE   GREEK   EMPIRES 

1.  The  Beginnings  of  Greece  and  its  Expansion. 

2.  THE  FIRST  ATTEMPTS  AT  EMPIRE. 

(a)  The  Persian  Wars.  (V)  The  rise  of  the  Athenian  Empire. 
(c)  The  Age  of  Pericles,  (d)  The  Peloponnesian  War.  (e)  Other 
Imperial  Attempts:  Sparta  revives  oligarchy  by  force  (the  thirty 
at  Athens,  Lysander  in  power) — empire  of  Dionysius  in  Sicily — the 
struggle  for  imperialism  at  Sparta — complications  with  Persia — the 
"Anabasis" — war  with  Persia — Agesilaus  in  Asia  Minor — difficul- 
ties at  home — peace  of  Antalcidas — its  outcome — the  Theban  trouble 
(Cadmeia,  Leuctra,  the  Theban  heroes — army) — Theban  imperial- 
ism (in  the  Peloponnesus,  elsewhere,  Mantinea,  the  outcome) — 
Athenian  revival  (the  league  and  its  failure) — Summary  of  the  situ- 
ation (transition  of  ideas,  art  of  war,  politics,  finance) — growth  of 
art  and  literature  (sculpture  and  painting,  death  of  Socrates,  Xeno- 
phon,  Plato,  Isocrates) — the  problem  solved  by  new  peoples — rise 
of  Macedonia  (place  and  people,  relation  to  Greece,  national  life, 
its  problems) — Philip  and  his  achievements  (the  army,  the  nation, 
the  coast,  advance  into  Greece,  attitude  toward  Greece,  who  op- 
posed him,  Demosthenes  and  his  work,  Chaeroneia,  result) — sum 
mary  of  Greek  history  from  this  point  of  view. 


Summary  of  Greek  Imperialism       205 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  are  the  following  noted: 
Cunaxa,  Coroneia,  Olynthus,  Megalopolis,  Epirus,  Pella,  Chse- 
roneia?  2.  Who  were  Lysander,  Dionysius,  Agesilaus,  Conon, 
Pelopidas,  Iphicrates,  Maussolus,  Xenophon,  Isocrates,  Demos- 
thenes? 3.  What  is  meant  by  harmost,  autonomy,  peltast, 
academy,  phalanx,  amphictyony? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  the  Spartan  imperial 
rule  with  that  of  Athens  (§§  163,  164,  190).  2.  Compare 
Epaminondas  with  Pericles.  3.  Compare  the  battle  of  Chae- 
roneia  with  that  of  Marathon. 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  Spartan  Im- 
perialism. Morey,  pp.  277-281 ;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  260-273;  Bots- 
ford,  pp.  250-268;  Plutarch,  Lives  of  Lysander  and  Agesilaus. 
2.  The  Thirty  at  Athens.  Bury,  pp.  507-513.  3.  Art  and  Litera- 
ture at  Athens.  Bury,  pp.  574-590.  4.  Xenophon.  Jebb,  pp. 
109-114;  Capps,  pp.  330-338;  Murray,  ch.  15.  5.  Plato.  Jebb, 
pp.  126-129;  Capps,  ch.  15;  Murray,  ch.  14.  6.  Isocrates. 
Jebb,  pp.  119-120;  Capps,  pp.  345-347;  Murray,  pp.  341-352. 
7.  The  Empire  of  Dionysius.  Bury,  pp.  638-666;  Botsford,  239- 
245;  Morey,  pp.  284-286.  8.  The  Theban  Uprising.  Botsford, 
pp.  268-274.  9.  Epaminondas  and  Thebes.  Bury,  pp.  625-626; 
Shuckburgh,  pp.  274-278;  Zimmern,  ch.  19;  Botsford,  pp.  275- 
283;  Plutarch,  Life  of  Pelopidas.  10.  Macedonia.  Morey,  pp. 
300-302;  Shuckburgh,  280-282;  Bury,  pp.  683-688;  Botsford, 
pp.  297-302.  11.  Philip  and  Demosthenes.  Bury,  pp.  687- 
737;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  283-291;  Zimmern,  ch.  20.  12.  The  "An- 
abasis" of  Cyrus.  Zimmern,  pp.  301-307;  Bury,  pp.  517-530. 

252.  Thus  the  brilliant  chapter  of  Greek  independent 
political  life  came  to  an  end.  Beginning  with  petty  com- 
munities growing  up  in  secluded  valleys,  the  Greeks  came  The  Pass 


ing  of 
Greece. 


to  value  above  all  else  the  blessing  of  freedom,  the  glory 

of  the  independence  of  separate  states,  each  working  out 

its  own  problems.     They  learned,  also,  how  to  give  to  each 

citizen  a  place  and  a  part  in  the  common  life.     But  situated 

as  the  Greek  peninsula  was,  midway  between  east  and  summar 

west  and  open  to  the  influences  of  Oriental  civilization,  its 

states  were  drawn  together  by  the  unifying  forces  of  com- 


206         The  First  Attempts  at  Empire 

merce  and  international  politics.  A  heroic  war  of  defence 
against  the  conquering  Empire  of  Persia  made  them  one  for 
a  season,  and  the  resulting  political  conditions  gave  the  op- 
portunity to  one  of  their  states — Athens — to  take  a  com- 
manding position  in  the  ^Egean  sea.  Thus  the  impulse 
to  union  was  strengthened  and  took  on  an  imperial  form. 
But  the  new  tendency  to  empire  clashed  with  the  old 
principle  of  autonomy,  and  the  conflict  dominated  suc- 
ceeding Greek  history.  Athens  fell,  only  to  be  succeeded 
by  Sparta  and  Thebes,  each  following  in  her  steps.  A 
similar  movement  was  made  in  Sicily,  where  Dionysius 
extended  his  personal  rule  over  a  wide  territory.  But  in 
the  fierce  conflict  of  old  and  new  all  these  imperial  en- 
deavors perished.  The  consummation  of  the  centuries 
of  troubled  progress  toward  unity  was  at  last  realized  in 
Philip  of  Macedon,  with  whose  victory  at  Chaeroneia  the 
importance  of  the  separate  city-states  came  to  an  end. 
Their  endeavors  after  empire  were  swallowed  up  in  a 
mightier  imperial  achievement  which  now  appeared  on  the 
horizon — the  Empire  of  Alexander. 

GENERAL    REVIEW  OF   PART   II,   DIVISION  2;  §§193-252 

431-331    B.C. 

TOPICS  FOR  CLASS  DISCUSSION.  1.  The  fundamental  politi- 
cal issue  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  traced  through  the  various 
stages  of  the  war  (§  193).  2.  The  growth  of  Imperialism  as 
illustrated  in  the  history  of  the  states  of  the  time  (§§  158,  164, 
190,  223,  232,  233,  240).  3.  The  policy  of  Athens  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian War  as  illustrated  in  the  leaders  Pericles,  Cleon, 
Nicias,  Alcibiades.  4.  The  policy  of  Sparta  in  the  war  as 
illustrated  in  the  leaders  Brasidas  and  Lysander.  5.  The  new 
learning  as  illustrative  of  the  spirit  of  the  times  (§§  199-206). 

6.  A  List  of  the  Ten  Greatest  Men  of  Greece,  from  431-331  B  c. 

7.  The  Part  played  by  Persia  during  the  period  from  431-338 


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Greek  Imperialism  207 

B.C.  8.  The  Relation  of  Macedonia  to  the  Greek  states  his- 
torically traced  down  to  338  B.C.  9.  The  Part  played  by  Sea 
power  in  the  Peloponnesian  War.  10.  The  Divisions  of  the 
Greek  World  which  were  chiefly  the  scene  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War. 

MAP  AND  PICTURE  EXERCISES.  1.  Make  a  map  of  Greece 
during  the  Peloponnesian  War  and  locate  the  chief  land  battles. 
2.  Make  a  map  of  the  ^gean  and  locate  on  it  the  chief  naval 
battles  of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  3.  How  did  it  happen  that 
statues  like  the  Hermes  (Plate  VIII)  and  buildings  like  the 
Parthenon  (Plate  I)  were  produced  by  the  Greeks  and  not  the 
Oriental  peoples?  4.  Study  Plate  XIII  to  observe  how  superior 
the  Greek  sculpture  is  to  the  Egyptian  in  composition.  What 
has  the  Egyptian  which  the  Greek  lacks? 

SUBJECTS  FOR  WRITTEN  PAPERS.  1.  The  Weaknesses  of 
Athenian  Democracy  as  Illustrated  in  the  Peloponnesian  War. 
Fowler,  The  City  State  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  pp.  176-183, 
245-260.  2.  A  Play  of  Euripides,  e.g.,  the  "Electra"  or  "Bac- 
chae"— the  story  of  the  play  and  its  testimony  to  the  times. 
Coleridge,  Translation  of  Euripides.  3.  A  Talk  with  Socrates 
Regarding  His  Condemnation  by  the  Athenians.  Plato,  the 
Apology.  4.  A  Study  of  the  Character  of  Alcibiades.  Plu- 
tarch, Life  of  Alcibiades.  5.  Why  the  Greeks  were  Able  to 
Drive  Back  the  Persians  and  yet  Fell  under  the  Macedonian 
Power.  Fowler,  The  City  State,  etc.,  chs.  9  and  n.  6.  A 
Description  of  the  Disaster  at  Syracuse.  Jowett's  Thucydides. 
7.  A  Report  of  the  Discussion  in  the  Athenian  Assembly  Con- 
cerning the  Punishment  of  Mitylene.  Jowett's  Thucydides. 


208  The  Empire  of  Alexander 

3.— THE  EMPIRES  OF  ALEXANDER  AND  HIS 

SUCCESSORS  TO   THE  APPEARANCE 

OF  ROME   IN  THE   EAST 

331-200  B.C. 

d)  ALEX-       253.  Hardly  had  Philip  organized  his  new  Greek  con- 
™I^^S     federacy  when,  in  connection  with  troubles  in  the  Mace- 

EMPIRfc/.  * 

Alexander     donian  court,  he  was  murdered  (336  B.C.).     His  son  Alex- 
^ng  °f  .     ander  succeeded  to  his  throne  and  his  plans.     The  son 

Macedonia. 

was,  in  many  respects,  the  image  of  his  father — of  splendid 
physical  constitution  and  fascinating  personality,  possess- 
ing the  same  combination  of  unyielding  will  and  romantic 
sensibility;  both  were  too  much  alike,  indeed,  to  get  on 
well  together,  and  it  was  said  that  the  father  had  little 
notion  of  permitting  the  son  to  succeed  him.  But  Alex- 
ander's training  had  been  such  as  to  prepare  him  to  rule. 

His  Prep-     His  education  had  been  conducted  under  Greek  teachers; 

the  Throve.  n^s  tutor  was  Aristotle,  the  keenest  and  most  learned  mind 
of  the  time.  His  military  training  had  been  gained  in  his 
father's  school  of  arms,  and  Philip  was  the  finest  soldier 
of  his  day.  Now  the  victories  of  Philip  had  put  into  his 
hands  a  united  Macedonia  and  the  leadership  of  the  Greek 
world;  he  was  the  general  of  a  magnificently  organized 
and  equipped  army  of  60,000  men;  the  splendid  project 
of  the  deliverance  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks  from  the  Persian 
sway  was  left  to  him  for  realization.  He,  the  young  man 
of  scarce  twenty-one  years,  stood  on  the  threshold  of  an 
incomparable  career;  on  his  action  hung  the  destiny  of 
centuries  to  come. 

254.  His  first  task  was  to  establish  his  position  in  Greece. 
Here  the  death  of  Philip  was  followed  by  attempts  to  throw 


Alexander's  Plans  209 

off  Macedonian  supremacy.     Two  expeditions  were  suffi-  His 
cient  to  settle  matters.     In  the  first,  Alexander  was  ac-  Settlement 

with 

knowledged  by  the  states  assembled  at  Corinth  as  head  Greece, 
of  the  Greek  confederacy.  In  the  second,  a  Theban  re- 
bellion was  nipped  in  the  bud  and  Thebes  was  levelled 
to  the  ground  as  a  punishment  (335  B.C.).  Athens, 
though  equally  offending,  was  spared.  During  the  same 
time  the  king  made  two  campaigns  upon  his  northern 
borders;  in  the  one  he  subdued  the  Thracians  and 
crossed  the  Danube;  in  the  other  he  routed  the  Illyrians 
in  the  northwest. 

255.  Already  to  the  daring  ambition  of  the  youthful 
Alexander,  Philip's  plan  to  deliver  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  ms  Pur- 
from  Persia  had  become  too  small.     His  purpose  was  a°*jnst 
nothing  less  than  to  strike  at  the  heart  of  the  Empire  itself  Persia, 
and  to  take  full  vengeance  for  the  wrongs  which  it  had  in- 
flicted upon  the  Greeks.     To  the  fulfilment  of  this  purpose 
he  now  set  himself.     The  co-operation  of  the  Greeks  had 
already  been  promised,  though  in  fact  it  amounted  to  little. 
His  dependence  must  be  upon  his  own  Macedonian  army 
with  its  trained  soldiery  and  its  skilful  generals,  all  alike 
devoted  to  himself.     With  an  army  of  some  40,000  men, 
of  which  5,000  were  cavalry,  he  set  forth  across  the  Helles-  The  start 
pont  in  334  B.C.,  leaving  behind  him  his  general,  Antip- 
ater,  with  a  strong  force  as  his  representative  and  the 
guardian  of  Macedonian  interests  in  Greece. 

The  spirit  and  purposes  of  the  king  and  his  generals  are  illustrated 
in  the  anecdote  preserved  in  Plutarch.  On  the  eve  of  his  departure 
he  distributed  among  his  friends  who  were  to  accompany  him  a  great 
part  of  his  royal  property.  Whereupon  Perdiccas  asked  him  what 
he  left  for  himself.  He  replied,  "My  hopes."  Then  Perdiccas  said, 
"Let  us  be  your  partners  in  these,"  and  refused  to  accept  the  king's 
gift. 


210  The  Empire  of  Alexander 

condition  256.  The  Persian  Empire,  although  it  had  sadly  declined 
of  Persia.  from  ^g  Spjrit  of  its  founders,  and  the  luxury  and  cor- 
ruption of  the  court  had  undermined  the  vigor  and  effi- 
ciency of  the  rulers,  was  still  a  mighty  and  formidable  state. 
Artaxerxes  III  (§  233)  had  been  very  successful  in  putting 
down  rebellions  and  had  restored  imperial  prestige.  But 
court  intrigues  made  way  with  him  in  338  B.C.  and  with 
Darius  in.  his  son  after  him.  Now  there  sat  on  the  throne  Darius 
III  (Codomannus),  a  noble  not  of  the  royal  line,  a  high- 
minded  and  generous  ruler,  but  able,  neither  in  intellect 
nor  in  circumstances,  to  cope  with  the  situation  that  faced 
him.  Neither  he  nor  his  counsellors  realized  that  they 
were  no  longer  contending  with  a  divided  and  inefficient 
Greece,  whose  leaders  they  had  been  accustomed  to  cor- 
rupt with  their  gold,  or  render  powerless  by  stirring  up 
difficulties  at  home. 

Alexander  2$j.  Accordingly,  Alexander  found  himself  confronted 
Minor*  w^n  an  army>  n°t  much  larger  than  his  own,  led  by  the 
Persian  satraps  of  Asia  Minor.  A  battle  took  place  in 
Granicus.  June,  334  B.C.,  at  the  river  Granicus,  on  the  farther  bank 
of  which  the  Persian  army  was  posted  in  a  strong  position. 
Alexander  swept  across  the  river  with  his  heavy  cavalry 
and  fell  upon  the  enemy's  cavalry.  On  their  rout  the 
Macedonian  phalanx  followed  and  engaged  the  Persian 
infantry  in  front,  while  the  cavalry  attacked  their  flanks — 
the  favorite  military  tactics  of  Alexander.  They  could  not 
stand,  and  when  they  fled,  the  battle  was  won.  The  rest 
of  the  year  was  occupied  in  winning  back  the  Ionian  cities 
and  the  other  strongholds  of  western  Asia  Minor.  Thus 
the  first  part  of  the  task  was  accomplished. 

258.  In  the  spring  of  333  B.C.  Alexander  set  out  from 
Gordeium  in  Phrygia,  by  a  rapid  march  seized  the  passes 


Battle  of  Issus 


211 


into  Cilicia  and  captured  Tarsus,  its  capital.  After  being 
delayed  here  for  some  days  on  account  of  a  nearly  fatal 
illness,  he  marched  forward  along  the  coast  toward  Syria. 


BATTLE  OF  ISSUS. 


Royal  Guards 
Macedonian  Cavalry 
Light-armed  Troop* 


Meanwhile,  Darius  with  his  army  had  advanced  into 
Syria,  and  failing  to  find  his  enemy,  had  marched  through 
an  upper  road  into  Cilicia  and  descended  to  the  plain  of 
Issus  in  the  rear  of  Alexander.  The  latter  immediately  issus 
turned  about,  and  the  second  great  battle  was  joined  at 
Issus.  Again,  as  at  the  Granicus,  the  Persians  stood  on 
the  defensive  at  the  bank  of  a  river  and  Alexander  sprang 


212  The  Empire  of  Alexander 

like  a  tiger  upon  the  enemy  with  his  heavy  cavalry,  followed 
by  his  foot-soldiers.  The  struggle  was  much  more  fierce; 
once  the  phalanx  seemed  to  be  broken;  the  light  cavalry 
on  the  left  were  hard  pressed.  But  again  Alexander's 
rush  carried  all  before  it;  the  phalanx  recovered  and  the 
Persians  broke  in  flight  for  the  mountains.  Darius  barely 
escaped,  leaving  his  tent,  personal  baggage  and  household 
to  fall  into  the  enemy's  hands.  The  way  was  now  open 
for  the  conquest  of  western  Asia,  and  Alexander  descended 
into  Syria. 
259.  Leaving  Darius  to  continue  his  flight  to  the  east 

Alexander     unhindered,    Alexander  moved  southward  to  take  pos- 

Southward  sessi°n  °f  Phoenicia,  Palestine  and  Egypt.  The  Persian 
fleet,  made  up  chiefly  of  Phoenician  vessels,  was  master  of 
the  sea  and  could  be  subdued  only  by  getting  possession 
of  the  Phoenician  seaports.  City  after  city  submitted 

Tyre.  until  Tyre  was  reached.  Situated  on  an  island,  strongly 
fortified,  it  held  out  for  seven  months  in  one  of  the  greatest 
sieges  of  history.  The  king  built  a  mole  to  the  island  half 
a  mile  into  the  deep,  and,  by  the  aid  of  the  fleets  of  the 
cities  of  Phoenicia  and  Cyprus  that  had  yielded  to  him, 
finally  carried  the  city  by  assault.  A  similar  siege  at  Gaza 
was  successful;  the  way  was  open  to  Egypt,  which  he 
occupied  without  a  battle. 

The  jews.  260.  While  on  the  way  down  the  coast,  as  the  story  is 
told  by  Josephus  the  Jewish  historian,  he  visited  Jerusa- 
lem. After  the  overthrow  of  their  kingdom  and  their 
exile  to  Babylon  (§  80),  the  Jews  had  been  permitted  by 
Cyrus  to  return  and  rebuild  their  city  and  temple  (538  B.C.) 
Since  that  time  they  had  been  under  Persian  rule  and  had 
devoted  themselves  to  the  upbuilding  of  their  religious 
system  under  the  leadership  of  their  High-Priests.  They 


Alexandria 


213 


had  suffered  much  from  their  neighbors,  the  Samaritans, 
but  were  faithful  to  the  law  of  Moses  as  their  teachers 
enlarged  and  explained  it.  As  Alexander  advanced  to 
the  city,  the  high-priest  with  his  attendants  came  forth  to 
meet  him.  The  king,  who  was  at  first  inclined  to  be  angry 
with  the  Jews  for  not  taking  his  side,  was  led  by  a  vision 
which  he  had  seen  some  time  before  to  give  them  special 
favors. 

261.  In  Egypt  Alexander's  chief  work  was  the  founding  Egypt. 
of  a  city  at  the  western  mouth  of  the  Nile,  between  the 


Mareotic  lake  and  the  island  of  Pharos.     Joining  the 
island  with  the  mainland  by  a  causeway,  he  made  two  fine 
harbors  for  the  city,  which  he  named  after  himself  and  Founding 
destined  to  take  the  place  of  ruined  Tyre  as  the  commer-  °^"" 
cial  centre  of  the  western  Mediterranean.     This  destiny 
was  fulfilled,  for  Alexandria  became  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant cities  of  the  ancient  world. 


214  The  Empire  of  Alexander 

262.  A  visit  to  the  temple  of  Zeus  Amon  in  the  western 
desert,  where  the  god  declared  him  his  own  son  and  there- 
fore rightful  heir  to  the  Egyptian  throne  (§  21),  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  organization  of  the  government  of  Egypt. 
By  the  spring  of  331  B.C.  Alexander  started  for  the  far 

TO  the  east.  In  September  he  found  the  Persian  king  awaiting 
him  with  a  vast  army,  east  of  the  Tigris,  near  the  old 
Arbeia.  Assyrian  city  of  Arbela  (§  68).  This  city,  or  the  nearer 
village  of  Gaugamela,  has  given  the  name  to  the  battle 
which  was  joined  on  the  first  of  October.  Over  against 
the  Macedonian's  40,000  foot  and  7,000  horse  were  said 
to  be  arrayed  a  million  foot  and  40,000  horse  under  the 
command  of  the  Great  King — a  motley  host  mighty  only 
by  sheer  weight  and  momentum.  Alexander's  tactics 
were  directed  to  the  breaking  up  of  this  tremendous  mass 
and  the  routing  of  the  enemy's  centre,  where  Darius  had 
taken  his  stand.  A  cavalry  charge  led  by  Alexander  him- 
self was  the  decisive  stroke,  and  by  nightfall  the  Persians 
were  in  flight.  The  king  escaped  into  the  eastern  moun- 
capture  tains,  but  his  empire  over  the  Mesopotamian  valley  was 
Persian  utterly  lost.  Alexander  never  had  to  fight  another  great 
capitals.  battle  against  the  Persians.  He  marched  southward  to 
Babylon,  which  opened  its  gates  without  a  struggle,  then 
eastward  into  Elam  and  the  old  Persian  land  (§  83), 
where  he  captured  the  cities  of  Susa  and  Persepolis 
— capitals  and  treasure-cities  of  the  Persian  king.  One 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand  talents  were  said  to  have 
been  obtained  from  the  latter  city. 

263.  In  330  B.C.  the  conqueror  marched  northward  into 
Pursuit  of     Media  in  pursuit  of  Darius.     He  arrived  at  Ecbatana, 

the  old  Median  capital,  only  to  find  that  the  Persian  had 
fled  eastward.     Alexander  was  now  at  the  parting  of  the 


Alexander's  New  Ambition  215 

ways.  He  had  taken  vengeance  for  the  Persian  invasion 
of  Greece.  He  had  torn  from  the  Persian  king  the  fairest 
of  his  dominions — the  richest,  most  famous  and  cultured 
districts  of  the  Oriental  world.  To  the  east  lay  the  unknown 
regions,  deserts  and  mountains,  whence  the  Medes  and 
Persians  had  come  to  conquer  the  world.  Why  should  The  New 
he  advance  farther?  Only  because  a  new  purpose  had  l™^™ 
taken  shape  in  his  mind — that  he  would  be  not  only  king  solution, 
of  Macedonia  and  captain-general  of  the  Greeks,  but  also 
lord  of  the  Persian  Empire.  To  unite  the  west  and  the 
east  under  his  own  sway  was  now  his  ambition.  Hence, 
at  Ecbatana,  he  dismissed  those  of  the  Greeks  in  his  army 
who  desired  to  return  home  and  loaded  them  with  pres- 
ents. Some  of  them,  on  his  invitation,  remained  and  re- 
enlisted  as  his  own  soldiers.  With  an  army  which  no 
longer  represented  the  Greek  states,  but  obeyed  him 
alone,  he  advanced  to  the  conquest  of  the  far  east. 

264.  Darius,  meanwhile,  had  fallen  into  the  power  of 
his  satraps,  who  were  hurrying  him  eastward,  where  he 
might  make  a  new  and  final  struggle  against  the  conqueror. 
Alexander  put  forth  every  effort  to  capture  him,  followed 
on  his  track  day  and  night  with  his  best  soldiers,  only  at 

last  to  come  upon  him  dead,  killed  by  his  own  people.   Death  of 
What  remained  was  to  make  a  systematic  campaign  against  E 
the  eastern  provinces.     It  required  three  years  (330-327  conquest 
B.C.)  of  strenuous,  heart-breaking  warfare  among  deserts,  Jj^1^ 
through  wintry  tempests,  over  lofty  mountains.     At  last 
the  work  was  fairly  done  and  he  was  Persian  Emperor  in 
very  fact,  lord  of  the  last  foot  of  ground  that  had  once  ac- 
knowledged the  authority  of  the  Achemenidae. 

265.  Alexander's  purpose  to  be  ruler  of  Persia  did  not 
mean  to  substitute  Greek  ideas  and  customs,  or  Greek 


216  The  Empire  of  Alexander 

Alexander's  officials,  for  those  of  Persia,  but  rather  to  unite  the  two 
unite*0        peoples  in  a  common  life.     He  placed  Persians  in  charge 
Greeks  and    of  the  civil  affairs  of  the  provinces,  while  he  reserved  the 
military  authority  to  the  Macedonians.     He  began  him- 
self to  assume  something  of  the  gorgeous  state  of  a  Persian 
Emperor;  he  surrounded  himself  with  the  splendors  of  an 
Oriental  court.     He  married  Roxana,  the  beautiful  daugh- 
ter of  a  chieftain  of  the  far  east.     He  settled  his  veterans 
in  cities  which  he  planted  in  these  regions  and  gave  them 
The  Orientals  as  fellow-citizens.     All  this  could  not  be  pushed 

opposition,  through  without  rousing  the  anger  of  those  bold  and  loyal 
Macedonians  who  had  followed  him  through  all  perils 
as  their  national  leader  and  who  disdained  the  Orientals 
whom  they  had  conquered.  Discontent  grew  into  secret 
plotting  or  open  opposition  on  the  part  of  Alexander's 
captains  and  counsellors.  He  stamped  it  out  with  merci- 
its  Pun-  less  rigor.  Parmenio  was  put  to  death  along  with  his  son 
Philotas,  who  was  discovered  in  a  conspiracy.  When 
Clitus,  Alexander's  foster-brother,  at  a  drinking-bout 
boldly  expressed  the  unspoken  dissatisfaction,  he  ran  him 
through  with  a  spear.  Callisthenes,  the  philosopher  and 
historian,  refused  to  do  obeisance  in  the  Oriental  manner 
to  his  Macedonian  lord,  and  not  long  after  was  punished 
with  death.  Such  disturbances,  with  their  bloody  ven- 
geance, speak  loudly  of  the  tremendous  changes  which 
were  coming  over  the  face  of  the  world  and  not  less  over 
the  character  and  position  of  Alexander  himself.  The 
horizon  was  spreading  out  too  wide  and  the  problem  was 
becoming  too  complicated  for  any  but  Alexander  to  grasp, 
and  he  ran  the  danger  of  losing  his  own  soul  in  the  struggle. 
266.  One  more  step  remained  for  him  to  take.  Greece 
and  the  Persian  Empire  were  not  sufficient  for  his  am- 


Reference  to  Col 

over  3,000  feet 
3,000  to  9,000  fee 
600  to  3,000  feet 
Sea  Level  to  UOO  feet 


ALEXANDER'S    EMPIRE. 


Boundary  of  Empire 
Boundaries  of  Provinces 
Marc-lies  of  Alexander[~ 


Union  of  Greeks  and  Persians        217 

bition.  He  aspired  to  be  conqueror  of  the  world.  In 
327  B.C.  he  crossed  the  mountains  into  India,  whither  the  campaign 
Persians  had  already  gone  before  him  (§90).  He  overran  ir 
the  valley  of  the  river  Indus,  won  a  victory  from  the  Indian 
king  Porus,  and  would  have  marched  eastward  to  the 
river  Ganges  had  not  his  army  refused  to  follow  him  into 
these  unknown  and  distant  regions.  Returning,  he  moved 
down  the  Indus  to  its  mouth,  and  made  a  voyage  into  the 
Indian  ocean.  He  took  his  army  up  the  coast  in  a  march 
of  terrible  difficulty,  ordered  his  fleet  to  follow  by  sea,  and 
reached  Susa  early  in  324  B.C. 

267.  Hardly  had  he  returned  from  his  Indian  campaign  Develop- 
when  he  plunged  into  the  task  of  organizing  his  Empire  ^^1 
on  the  lines  which  he  had  planned.     The  union  of  Mace-  Ideas- 
donians  and  Persians  was  encouraged  by  his  taking  as 
another  wife  the  daughter  of  Darius,  and  inducing  his 
nobles  likewise  to  marry  Persian  women.     Others  of  his 
officers  and  soldiers  who  made  such  marriages  were  richly 
rewarded.     The  army  was  also  recruited  from  Persians; 

a  large  number  of  their  young  men  were  trained  in  Mace- 
donian tactics  and  in  the  use  of  Greek  weapons.  Their 
best  horsemen  were  drafted  into  the  cavalry;  some  were 
even  enrolled  in  the  crack  Macedonian  regiments.  The 
hostility  to  these  measures  was  pretty  well  broken  down. 
It  flamed  out  for  the  last  time  at  Opis,  when  the  king  pro- 
posed to  send  ten  thousand  worn-out  Macedonian  veterans 
home  to  their  native  land.  Thereupon  the  whole  army 
cried  out  to  be  sent  home  rather  than  be  levelled  down  to 
the  Persians.  But  the  uproar  was  soon  quieted.  They 
were  too  much  attached  to  their  leader  to  stand  out  against 
his  will. 

268.  Alexander  went  to  Babylon  in  323  B.C.  and  was 


218  The  Empire  of  Alexander 

Alexander     met  by  embassies  from  Carthage,  the  Phoenician  colonies 
sabyion.  m  gpgj^  the  states   of  Italy,  from  the  Ethiopians  and 
Libyans,  from  the  outlying  peoples  of  the  north,  all  of 
whom,  it  seems,  expected  sooner  or  later  the  advent  of 
the  conqueror  upon  their  borders.     He  himself  was  plan- 
ning an  expedition  to  the  coast  of  Arabia,  with  the  design 
of  developing  trade  routes  from  India  and  Babylonia  to 
Egypt  and  the  Mediterranean.      But,   after  a  night   of 
feasting  and  drinking,  he  was  taken  ill.     The  fever  in- 
His  Death,    creased,  and  on    the   thirteenth  of  June,  323  B.C.,   he 

passed  away  in  the  thirty-third  year  of  his  age. 
Alexander        269.  Alexander  is  the  flower  of  the  Greek  race,  the  su- 
amPon™e      preme  figure  in  its  gallery  of  heroes.     In  physical  strength 
Greek          an(j  beauty,  in  mental  grasp  and  poise,  in  moral  purpose 

Heroes. 

and  mastery,  he  was  pre-eminent  among  the  men  of  his 
time.  Of  high,  almost  sentimental,  ideals  of  honor,  a 
warm-hearted,  genial  companion  and  friend,  the  idol 
of  his  troops,  fearless  even  to  recklessness  in  the  day  of 
battle,  he  knew  how  to  work  tirelessly,  to  hold  purposes 
with  an  iron  resolution,  to  sweep  all  opposition  from  his 
path,  and  to  deny  himself  pitilessly  for  the  fulfilment  of 
his  plans.  To  reach  so  high  a  station,  to  stand  alone  at 
the  summit  of  human  achievement,  was  for  so  young  a 
man  almost  fatally  dangerous.  Alexander  did  not  escape 
unharmed.  Power  made  him  sometimes  arbitrary  and 
cruel.  Opposition  drove  him  to  crimes  which  are  without 
excuse.  Yet  in  an  age  of  license  he  was  chaste;  though 
given  to  Macedonian  habits  of  deep  drinking,  he  was  no 
drunkard.  In  thirteen  years  of  incessant  activity  he  mas- 
tered the  world  and  set  it  going  in  new  paths.  While 
accomplishing  this  task  he  made  his  name  immortal. 
270.  The  greatness  of  Alexander  as  a  general  is  clearly 


Sophocles 


Socrates 


Pericles 


The  Aphrodite  of  Melos 


Alexander  An  Alexandrian  Greek 

TYPICAL   GREEK    HEADS 


I 


Alexander  as  a  Statesman  219 

revealed  in  the  full  accounts  of  the  battles  he  fought  and  ms 
the  campaigns  he  carried  through  to  success.    He  was  the   g^*17 
mightiest  conqueror  the  world  had  ever  seen.     But  it  has 
been  reserved  for  modern  scholars  to  emphasize  the  most 
splendid  and  enduring  elements  of  his  career :  his  genius  for 
organization,  his  statesmanship,  his  far-reaching  plans  of  His  states- 
government  and  administration.     Like  all  his  great  pre-   manshlp- 
decessors  in  the  field  of  arms,  he  was  no  mere  fighter  for 
the  sake  of  fighting,  nor  did  the  lust  of  acquisition  spur  him 
on  to  useless  and  empty  conquests.     The  crowning  and 
decisive  proof  of  this  is  seen  in  the  cities  which  he  founded.  Founding 
No  conquest  was  complete  until  he  had  selected  sites  for  of  Cltie8' 
new  settlements,  and  these  sites  were  chosen  with  an  un- 
erring insight  into  the  opportunities  for  trade  as  well  as 
for  defence.     Sixteen  Alexandrias  all  over  the  East  go  back 
to  him  as  founder,  the  greatest  of  which  was  the  Egyptian 
metropolis  (§  261).     It  is  said  that   he  founded   in   all 
some  seventy  cities.    Many  of  them  were  so  wisely  planted 
that  they  exist  to  this  day  as  nourishing  centres  of  com- 
mercial life.     They  were  organized  on  Greek  models  and 
reflected  Greek  civilization. 

271.  The  supreme  achievement  of  Alexander  was  the  Alexander's 
Empire  and  the  ideas  it  represented.     Its  extent  was  the  Empire' 
widest  that  the  world  had  seen.     The  scheme  of  adminis-  Unified, 
tration,  although  not  known  in  detail,  appears  to  have 
been  singularly  adapted  to  bind  all  parts  together  in  subor- 
dination to  the  central  authority.     One  vital  feature  of  it 
was  the  division  of  the  provincial  government  into  three 
parts,  financial,  military,  civil;  each  one  of  these  was  as- 
signed to  a  separate  official;  all  were  of  the  same  rank  and 
were  responsible  to  the  king  alone.     The  ideal  of  a  world-  world- 
state  was  more  fully  realized  than  ever  before.     From  this 


Filled  with 
the  Greek 
Spirit. 


Centred 
in  Alex- 
ander. 


It  Involved 
the  Loss  of 
Greek 
Freedom. 


220  The  Empire  of  Alexander 

point  of  view  the  importance  of  the  oceans  and  seas  sur- 
rounding his  world  was  emphasized  by  the  king,  who  by 
his  explorations  greatly  extended  the  geographic  knowl- 
edge of  antiquity.  He  paid  particular  attention  to  the 
commercial  unity  of  his  Empire  and  the  development  of 
trade  between  its  various  parts.  The  populations  of  the 
Empire  were  brought  together  in  an  extraordinary  fashion. 
Greek  culture  especially  was  introduced  throughout  the 
Orient,  whereby  all  life  was  raised  to  a  higher  plane.  Like- 
wise the  Greek  idea  of  government,  as  intended  to  secure 
justice  and  seek  the  best  interests  of  the  citizen,  charac- 
terized this  Empire  and  made  it  distinctly  higher  than  those 
that  had  gone  before.  Above  all,  it  was  unique  and  su- 
perior to  its  predecessors  because  it  was  Alexander's  Em- 
pire— it  centred  in  a  splendid  personality.  How  different 
was  the  case  in  Oriental  empires  (§  91)!  Now  for  the 
first  time  the  Greek  idea  of  the  individual  and  his  impor- 
tance in  the  world  (§  120)  took  its  seat  in  his  person  upon 
the  throne.  It  is  no  chance  that  so  many  sayings  of  his  are 
preserved;  that  so  many  legends  have  gathered  about 
his  name.  The  Empire  was  his  creation  and  was  held 
together  in  him.  His  portrait  appears  upon  its  coins; 
worship  was  offered  to  him  as  to  a  god,  the  symbol  of  uni- 
versal authority. 

272.  We  must  not  forget  at  what  a  cost  this  advance 
was  made.  The  petty  world  of  Greece  with  its  quarrels 
of  little  states  passed  away.  Its  immortal  achievements 
in  politics,  art  and  literature  were  made  the  possession  of 
east  and  west.  But  the  political  freedom  of  Greece  was 
lost.  The  great  new  world  had  its  life  and  its  law  from 
the  lips  of  one  lord ;  it  depended  on  his  will  and  bowed  be- 
fore him.  More  men  Avere  better  governed,  had  greater 


The  Passing  of  Greece  221 

prosperity  and  higher  culture.  The  price  paid  for  it  all 
was  the  disappearance  from  the  Graeco-Oriental  world  of 
the  free  state  in  which  the  citizen  made  and  kept  the  laws, 
and  was  at  the  same  time  ruler  and  ruled. 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 
II.   THE  GREEK  EMPIRES 

i.  The  Beginnings  of  Greece  and  its  Expansion.  2.  The  First  Attempts 
at  Empire. 

3.  THE  EMPIRES  OF  ALEXANDER  AND  His  SUCCESSORS. 

(i)  Alexander's  Empire:  Alexander  King  of  Macedonia  (prepara- 
tion, relation  to  Greece,  attitude  toward  Persia)  —  his  advance 
against  Persia  (condition  of  Persia,  battles  in  Asia  Minor,  march 
southward  to  Egypt,  eastward,  Arbela  and  after) — the  new  problem 
and  its  solution  (death  of  Darius,  far  eastern  campaigns,  Mace- 
donian opposition  put  down,  Alexander  Emperor  of  the  world, 
India) — imperial  ideas  and  manners — death — estimate  as  man, 
general  and  statesman— what  it  meant  to  Greece. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  are  the  following  famous: 
Granicus,  I ssus,  Arbela,  Tyre,  Alexandria,  Persepolis,  Indus? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  Achemenidse,   High-Priest,  phalanx? 

3.  What  is  the  date  of  the  founding  of  Alexandria,  of  the  death 
of  Alexander? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  Alexander  with  Alci- 
biades.  2.  Compare  the  Empire  of  Alexander  with  that  of 
Assyria,  or  Persia;  with  the  Athenian  Empire.  3.  "No  single 
personality,  excepting  the  carpenter's  son  of  Nazareth,  has  done 
so  much  to  make  the  world  we  live  in  what  it  is  as  Alexander 
of  Macedon."— Can  you  justify  this  assertion? 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  Alexander's 
Campaigns.  Bury,  pp.  747-821;  Zimmern,  ch.  21;  Shuck- 
burgh,  ch.  20;  Mahaffy,  Alexander's  Empire,  pp.  12-42;  Morey, 
pp.  309-314.  2.  Alexander's  Empire.  Mahaffy,  pp.  1-3;  Bury, 
pp.  785-786,  793-794.  815-816;  West,  pp.  219-224;  Morey,  pp. 
322-323.  3.  Alexander.  Plutarch,  Life  of  Alexander;  Morey, 
pp.  314-316,  320;  Bury,  pp.  821-822. 


222    Empires  of  Alexander's  Successors 


(2)  THE 
SUCCES- 
SORS OF 
ALEX- 
ANDER. 


Attitude  of 

His 

Generals. 


Their 
Rivalry. 


273.  A  more  immediately  serious  defect  of  this  personal 
rule  of  Alexander  was  that  his  Empire  seemed  likely  to  col- 
lapse at  his  death.    He  left  no  heir,  though  shortly  after  his 
death  his  wife  Roxana  bore  a  son,  called,  after  his  father, 
Alexander.       The  Macedonian  nobles  who  had  served 
under  their  great  captain  were  the  natural  upholders  of 
his  Empire  and  the  guardians  of  the  heir  to  the  throne.    At 
first  they  sought  loyally  to  fulfil  this  task.     Alexander's 
most  trusted  lieutenant,  Perdiccas,  was  made  head  of  the 
government  and  protector  of  the  imperial  system,  until 
the  youthful  Alexander  came  of  age;  he  associated  with 
himself  the  other  generals.      Seleucus  received  an  im- 
portant military  post.     Others  were  appointed  governors 
of  provinces — to  Ptolemy  *  was  assigned  Egypt,  to  An- 
tigonus,  Phrygia,  to  Lysimachus,  Thrace,  to  Eumenes, 
Cappadocia  and  Paphlagonia,  while  Antipater  (§  255) 
was  left  in  charge  of  Macedonia.     Antipater's  son,  Cas- 
sander,  was  also  given  a  military  command.     A  danger- 
ous breach  in  Alexander's  system  was  made  in  allowing 
the  provincial  governors  to  keep  companies  ^  of  soldiers 
under  their  own  control. 

274.  It  soon  appeared,  however,  that  personal  rivalries 
among  these  leaders  would  not  permit  them  to  live  in  peace 
with  one  another  and  be  faithful  to  their  trust.     Hardly 
had  the  new  arrangement  gone  into  effect  when  quarrels 
broke  out  among  them.     They  combined  against  each 
other  in  constantly  varying  groups,  and  the  resulting  wars 
brought  the  majority  of  them  to  their  end.     The  ideal 
which  tempted  each  of  them  was  the  recovery  of  the  unity 
of  the  Empire  under  his  own  leadership,  but  the  outcome 
of  the  unceasing  battles  and  intrigues  was  its  dissolution. 

*  Pronounced  tolemy. 


Greece  under  Alexander  223 

Perdiccas  was  soon  slain  by  his  own  soldiers  while  endeav- 
oring to  maintain  control  over  the  governors.     Then  An-  Breaking 
tipater,  Eumenes,  Antigonus,  Cassander  and  Lysimachus  Em^re^ 
in  succession  passed  off  the  scene.*  Roxana  and  the  young 
Alexander  had  been  put  to  death.     The  Empire  became 
the  prey  of  the  strongest.     In  fact,  it  ceased  to  exist  any 
longer  except  as  an  ideal;  the  Macedonian  leaders  had 
already  begun  to  call  themselves  kings  of  the  various  divis- 
ions over  which  they  ruled.     Thus  Cassander  had  been 
King  of  Macedonia.     Seleucus  became  King  of  Syria  and 
the  east.     Ptolemy  assumed  royal  power  in  Egypt.   Hence-  The  Three 
forth  the  history  of  the  Empire  of  Alexander  gathered  Kingdoms- 
about  the  history  of  these  three  separate  kingdoms. 

275.  This  dreary  period  of  the  breaking  up  of  the  Em-  The  Era 
pire  and  the  formation  of  these  kingdoms  out  of  its  frag-   <fstruggle- 
ments  lasted  more  than  forty  years.   Its  close  may  be  dated 

at  the  death  of  Seleucus  (280  B.C.),  the  last  of  those  Mace- 
donian nobles  who  surrounded  Alexander  and  helped  him 
to  create  the  Empire  which  after  his  death  they  had  de- 
stroyed. 

276.  During  Alexander's  career  of  world-conquest  the  Greece  in 
political  importance  of  the  old  Greek  states  was  insignifi-  Emptr^" 
cant.     All  except  Sparta  had  formally  accepted  Macedo- 
nian headship.     Alexander  had  done  his  utmost  to  show 

them  honor  and  grant  them  freedom  to  manage  their 
own  affairs.      Athens,   especially,   had  profited  by   this 
favor,  and  under  the  leadership  of  Phocion  had  loyally  Prosperity 
kept  the  peace.     Not  only  did  her  material  prosperity  of  Athens- 
increase,   but  her   intellectual    influence    became   more  Aristotle. 

*One  decisive  battle  of  the  time  was  that  of  Ipsus,  301  B.C.,  in  which 
the  attempt  of  Antigonus  to  become  master  of  the  Empire  was  defeated 
and  he  himself  was  killed. 


224    Empires  of  Alexander's  Successors 

splendid.  Aristotle,  the  tutor  of  Alexander,  had  come 
to  Athens  upon  his  pupil's  accession  to  the  throne,  and 
compared  from  334  B.C.  to  323  B.C.  he  taught  philosophy  in  the 
piato  Lyceum  in  that  city.  He  had  been  a  pupil  of  Plato 
(§  239).,  but  in  his  temperament,  his  method,  and  his 
conclusions  he  departed  widely  from  his  master.  Plato 
was  a  poet,  full  of  imagination,  aiming  after  lofty 
ideals  which  he  saw  by  a  kind  of  inspired  vision.  Aris- 
totle was  a  cool  and  cautious  thinker,  seeking  the  meaning 
student  of  of  the  world  by  a  study  of  things  about  him,  not  satisfied 
until  he  brought  everything  to  the  test  of  observation.  Thus 
he  investigated  the  laws  which  governed  the  arts  of  rhetoric 
and  poetry;  he  collected  the  constitutions  of  many  Greek 
states  and  drew  from  them  some  general  principles  of 
politics;  he  studied  animals  and  plants  to  know  their 
structure;  he  examined  into  the  acts  and  ways  of  men  to 
determine  the  essence  of  their  right-  and  wrong-doing.  He 
set  his  students  to  this  kind  of  study  and  used  the  results 
of  their  work.  Thus  a  new  method  of  investigation  was 
created  and  new  light  thrown  on  all  sides  of  life.  A  most 
learned  man,  he  had  a  passion  for  truth  and  reason;  one  of 
his  most  famous  sayings  is  "Plato  and  truth  are  both  dear 
to  me,  but  it  is  a  sacred  duty  to  prefer  truth."  His  works, 
His  especially  his  Politics,  Ethics,  and  Poetics,  have  had  vast 

itmgs.  power  m  guiding  the  thinking  of  men  since  his  day.  His 
style  is  usually  dry  and  difficult,  though  his  Constitution  o] 
Athens,  discovered  in  an  Egyptian  papyrus  in  1890,  is 
more  readable.  His  interest  in  universal  knowledge  was 
in  harmony  with  the  wider  world- view  opened  by  the  con- 
His  quests  of  Alexander;  in  this  respect  he  is  a  true  son  of  his 

andVar-      times.     His  political  ideas,  however,  are  narrow  and  show 
that  even  he  did  not  fully  grasp  the  significance  of  his  great 


rowness. 


Antipater  and  the  Greeks  225 

pupil's  achievement.  His  ideal  state  consists  of  not  more 
than  twenty  thousand  citizens,  none  of  whom  engage  in 
commerce  and  trade.  He  regarded  the  Orientals  as  an 
inferior  people,  fit  only  for  slavery. 

277.  The  Greeks  were  not  satisfied  with  their  political 
inferiority,  even  though  it  was  compensated  for  by  peace  Revolt 
and  the  recognition  of  their  intellectual  leadership.     The  Macedonia 
news  of  Alexander's  death  was  the  signal  for  rebellion. 
Athens  led  the  struggle  for  freedom  against  Antipater 

(§  273),  and  was  joined  by  other  Greek  states.  At  first  Lamian 
fortune  favored  them.  Antipater  was  shut  up  in  Lamia  War' 
(from  this  city  the  war  was  called  the  Lamian  War).  But 
he  succeeded  in  escaping  and  defeated  the  Greeks  in  a 
battle  at  Crannon  (322  B.C.);  the  collapse  of  their  con- 
federacy followed.  In  the  punishment  that  was  meted 
out,  Athens  suffered  most.  Her  constitution  was  changed 
by  depriving  the  poorer  citizens  of  the  franchise;  a  Mace- 
donian garrison  was  placed  in  the  harbor  of  Munychia; 
the  leaders  of  the  rebellion  were  put  to  death.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  Demosthenes  cheated  his  executioners  by 
taking  poison  (322  B.C.).  Similar  severe  measures  fol- 
lowed against  the  other  states.  Never  before  had  Mace- 
donian power  so  brutally  emphasized  its  lordship  over 
Greece.  Only  the  ^tolians  in  their  mountain-valleys 
escaped  punishment,  because  Antipater  was  compelled  to 
turn  his  attention  to  the  east. 

278.  It  would  have  been  better  for  Greece,  if,  in  the  Greece  in 
struggles  for  empire  that  followed,  she  had  sunk  into  entire  ^M*^ 
insignificance.     But  this  was  not  possible.     Her  strategic  Generals, 
position  in  the  Mediterranean,  her  commercial  importance, 

her  value  as  a  recruiting  ground  for  mercenaries,  the  fasci- 
nation of  her  intellectual  superiority  and  the  splendor  of 


226     Empires  of  Alexander's  Successors 

her  civilization,  drew  every  one  of  the  successors  of  Alex- 
ander with  magnetic  power  to  her  shores.  Her  land  be- 
came the  battle-ground,  the  prize  for  which  all  were  con- 
tending. Everything  was  done  to  win  her  cities;  they 
were  courted  by  all  parties;  gifts  were  made  to  them; 
freedom  was  promised  them.  Thus  they  were  continually 
thrown  into  confusion,  and  the  promises  made  them  were 
soon  seen  to  be  merely  means  for  this  or  that  conqueror 
to  rule  them.  Party  strife  raged  without  any  hopeful  out- 
look; the  real  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  kings,  who 
alternately  cajoled  and  threatened  them. 

The  New          279.  Three  new  things,  however,  appear  out  of  this 
fat!*11**      confusion,     (i)  New  nationalities  rise  to  play  their  part 
situation.     in  Greek  life;  (2)  The  spirit  of  freedom  is  roused  to  new 
energy;  (3)  This  spirit  is  embodied  in  a  new  form  of  politi- 
cal life — many  cities  and  districts  unite  in  Leagues  to  de- 
fend and  maintain  their  freedom. 

The  New          280.  Of  these  new  nationalities  the  most  important  were 
Nationaii-     the  ^chaeans,  the  ^tolians  and  the  people  of  Epirus.     The 
Achaeans  lived  in  cities  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  Corin- 
thian gulf;   the  vEtolians  and  Epirotes  in  northwestern 
Greece.     None  of  them  had  taken  any  real  part  in  Greek 
The  JEto-     politics  in  the  preceding  centuries.     The  Achaeans  and 
Acnian       ^tolians  organized  as  leagues.     The  league  of  the  former 
Leagues.      consisted  of  ten  cities;  that  of  the  latter  was  made  up  of 
districts.     A  national  assembly,  consisting  of  all  the  citi- 
zens, met  once  or  twice  a  year  to  deliberate  on  common 
interests  and  to  elect  officers.     The  chief  officer  was  called 
the  General.     He  had  large  powers  and  managed  affairs, 
assisted  by  other  officials.     Every  city  or  district  remained 
a  distinct  state  in  charge  of  its  own  local  affairs,  but  the 
relations  to  outside  powers,  the  making  of  war  or  peace, 


A  Roman  Temple  in  Gaul 
CLASSICAL   TEMPLES 


The  Rise  of  Epirus  227 

were  determined  by  the  national  assembly.     A  senate  pre- 
pared business  for  the  assembly.      These  leagues  threw 
themselves  vigorously  into  Greek  politics;  they  became 
the  centres  of  Greek  defence  against  outside  interference; 
they  were  the  last  bulwark  of  Greek  freedom.     Another 
league  of  a  somewhat  different  type  was  that  organized 
about  the  island  of  Rhodes.     Its  purpose  was  to  protect  League  of 
Greek  commerce.     The  first  code  of  maritime  law  was  Rhodes- 
issued  by  this  confederacy  and  became  the  standard  for  all 
later  time. 

281.  The  events  of  the  last  half  century  (350-300  B.C.),  Rise  of 
especially  the  rise  of  the  neighboring  country  of  Mace-  Epirus- 
donia,  had  brought  Epirus  into  the  sphere  of  Greek  life 

and  stimulated  its  kings  to  play  a  part  in  politics.     These 
kings  claimed  descent  from  Achilles,  of  Trojan  fame,  who 
was  worshipped  with  divine  honors.     Their  ambitions 
came  to  a  head  in  King  Pyrrhus  (295-273  B.C.),  a  reso-   King 
lute,  vigorous  but  unstable  ruler,  whose  military  skill  and  Pyrrhus> 
daring  won  for  him  from  his  people  the  title  of  "the  Eagle 
of  Epirus."     At  first  he  threw  himself  into  the  conflicts 
which  gathered  about  the  possession  of  Macedonia  after 
Alexander's  death,  and  at  one  time  he  was  practically  its 
ruler.     Then  he  turned  himself  to  the  west  and  crossed  . 

the  Adriatic  to  gain  renown  and  lands  in  Italy  and  Sicily 
as  the  representative  and  defender  of  the  western  Greeks. 
(280  B.C.). 

282.  In  Sicily  the  troubles  that  followed  the  death  of  the  The  Fort- 
elder  Dionysius  (§  222)  were  brought  to  an  end  by  a  gfciiy0' 
general,  sent  to  Syracuse  from  Corinth,  named  Timoleon, 

who  overthrew  the  tyrants,  beat  back  the  Carthaginians 
and  restored  order  and  prosperity  (345-337  B.C.).  After 
his  death,  strife  was  renewed,  out  of  which  emerged  a  new 


228     Empires  of  Alexander's  Successors 

Agatho-  leader,  Agathocles,  who  became  master  of  Syracuse  in 
316  B.C.  After  a  long  and  fierce  war  with  Carthage,  which 
again  sought  to  overpower  the  Sicilian  Greeks,  he  came  off 
victorious  in  305  B.C.  Then  he  took  the  title  of  king  and 
ruled  Sicily  with  vigor  and  success  until  his  death  in  289  B.C. 
Violent  in  his  treatment  of  his  enemies,  and  not  shrinking 
from  the  use  of  any  means  to  establish  his  power,  the  king 
maintained  the  Greek  supremacy  in  Sicily  before  the  ag- 
gressive Carthaginian  might,  and  stands  among  the  most 
potent  personalities  of  his  time.  Ptolemy  of  Egypt  (§  274) 
gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage,  and  his  own  daughter 
was  married  to  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus.  After  his  death  his 
empire  fell  to  pieces,  and  Greek  tyrants  in  the  various 
cities  as  well  as  the  Carthaginian  invader  again  appeared 
on  the  scene. 

Greater  283.  As  Greek  Sicily  was  threatened  by  Carthage,  so 

amnts        ^e  Greek  cities  of  eastern  Italy  were  in  constant  danger 
Problems,     from  the  native  peoples  among  whom  they  were  planted. 
Rich  and  prosperous  as  they  were,  they  could  not  unite  in 
their  own  defence,  and  hence  separate  cities  were  compelled 
from  time  to  time  to  seek  help  from  abroad.     One  of  these 
cities,  Tarentum,  the  greatest  and  wealthiest  of  them  all 
.  at  this  time,  was  threatened  by  the  Romans  (§  191)  who, 

victorious  over  enemies  round  about  them,  had  extended 
their  sway  far  into  southeastern  Italy.     To  ward  off  this 
Pyrrhus       danger,  the  Tarentines  invited  Pyrrhus  to  come  to  their 
ta  y'       aid.     He  accepted  their  invitation,  for  it  opened  to  him  new 
scenes  of  adventure  and  new  opportunities  for  power.     In 
the  spring  of  280  B.C.  he  appeared  in  Italy  with  an  army  of 
twenty  thousand  infantry,  three  thousand  cavalry,  two 
thousand  bowmen,  five  hundred  slingers  and  twenty  ele- 
phants.   At  first  he  carried  all  before  him  in  Italy  and 


The  Keltic  Invasion  229 

Sicily,  but,  as  time  wore  on,  his  ambitious  and  ruthless 
temper  alienated  his  friends;  the  unfavorable  outcome  of 
a  battle  with  the  Romans  at  Beneventum  (275  B.C.),  to-  Defeated 
gether  with  the  news  of  difficulties  in  Greece,  led  him  to 
return  thither  the  same  year.  Not  long  after,  during  a 
campaign  in  the  Peloponnesus,  he  met  his  death  in  an 
attack  upon  Argos  (273  B.C.). 

284.  The  year  280  B.C.  marks  not  merely  the  passing 
of  the  generation  of  Alexander  (§  273),  but  a  sudden  and 
terrific  disturbance  in  the  Greek  world  about  the  ^Egean 
sea.     This  was  caused  by  the  violent  descent  upon  its 
northern  borders  of  the  Kelts,  or  Galati,  a  strange,  rude,  Greece 
vigorous  and  warlike  people  who  had  for  a  century  been 
pouring  into  the  upper  Balkan  peninsula.    Down  they  came 

into  the  very  heart  of  Greece.  Only  the  vigorous  efforts  of 
the  states  of  Middle  Greece  led  by  the  /Etolian  League 
halted  them  near  Delphi  and  drove  them  back.  Their 
hordes  also  swept  over  Thrace,  crossed  the  Hellespont  and 
entered  Asia  Minor.  There  they  established  themselves  in 
the  centre  of  the  land  and  formed  a  new  state,  called  Gala-  Gaiatia. 
tia.  It  lay  right  across  the  direct  road  from  the  east  to 
the  west  and  was  a  permanent  hindrance  to  the  reunion 
of  the  separated  parts  of  the  Empire. 

285.  The  splitting  up  of  the  Empire  was  most  complete  Kingdoms 
in  Asia  Minor,  where,  besides  the  Galatian  state, -there  JJinoT 
were  half  a  dozen  separate  kingdoms  and  a  number  of 

free  cities.    The  chief  kingdom  was  that  which  had  its 

seat  in  the  city  of  Pergamum,  whose  kings,  Eumenes  I  Pergamum 

(263-241  B.C.)  and  Attalus  I  (241-197  B.C.),  extended 

its  boundaries  and  brought  it  to  high  prosperity.      It 

was  a  home  of  art.     Here  was  produced  the  well-known  its  Art. 

"Dying  Gladiator,"  which  is  more  properly  called  the 


230    Empires  of  Alexander's  Successors 

"Dying  Gaul,"  as  it  was  wrought  to  commemorate  the 
victory  of  Attalus  over  the  Kelts^  or  Gauls.  The  grand 
altar  of  Pergamum  was  decorated  with  a  splendid  frieze 
representing  the  struggle  of  the  gods  and  the  giants.  Full 
of  vigor  and  vitality,  it  is  inferior  to  the  work  of  the  classic 
age  only  in  the  lack  of  simplicity  and  grace.  In  the  free 
city  of  Rhodes  was  produced  during  this  age  the  famous 
group  of  "Laocoon  and  his  Sons,"  the  beauty  and  power 
of  which  is  marred  by  the  too  violent  expression  of  phys- 
ical suffering. 

Pontus.  286.  Another  important  kingdom  was  that  of  Pontus 

in  northeastern  Asia  Minor,  which,  under  its  king,  Mith- 
ridates  II,  made  wide  conquests  in  that  region.  The 

Free  cities,  free  cities  were  situated  for  the  most  part  on  the  sea- coasts 
and  united  in  leagues  or  put  themselves  under  the  pro- 
tection of  larger  states  for  the  maintenance  of  their  inde- 
pendence. Such  were  Byzantium,  Lampsacus,  Smyrna, 
Chios  and  Rhodes. 

The  King-        287.  The  kingdom  which  Seleucus  founded  in  the  East 

syria°f  (§  274)  dates  from  312  B-c->  the  so-called  Era  of  Seleucus, 
and  became  the  greatest  of  those  carved  out  of  Alexander's 
Empire.  It  extended  from  India  to  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean and  from  the  Indus  to  the  northern  mountains. 
The  capital  was  placed  at  Antioch,  in  Syria,  on  the  Orontes 
river.  This  fact  shows  that  its  kings  were  more  interested 
in  the  west  than  in  the  east.  It  was  called  the  Kingdom 
of  Syria.  Seleucus  was  followed  by  his  son,  Antio- 
chus  I  (281-261  B.C.),  and  he  by  other  kings  of  his  family 
called,  respectively,  by  the  names  Antiochus  or  Seleucus. 
All  adopted  most  consistently  the  policy  of  Alexander  in 
founding  cities  on  the  Greek  model.  Seleucus  I  is  said 
to  be  responsible  for  seventy-five  such  cities.  By  them 


The  Kingdom  of  Egypt  231 

Greek  ideas  and  life  were  persistently  diffused  throughout 
the  kingdom. 

288.  In  this  state  a  new  idea  of  Kingship  was  set  forth,   The  Syrian 
which  found  its  basis  in  the  personal  qualities  of  the  ruler  "histip 
and  his  service  to  the  state,  rather  than  in  his  hereditary 

right  or  in  his  being  chosen  by  the  gods  for  Kingship.  The 
idea  was  encouraged  by  theories  of  religion  represented 
by  the  philosopher  Euhemerus,  who  held  that  the  gods 
were  only  men  deified  for  their  heroic  and  useful  deeds. 
Hence  the  kings  of  this  age  did  not  hesitate  to  claim 
and  receive  divine  honors  for  themselves.  They  were 
worshipped  as  gods. 

289.  The  kings  of  Syria  had  great  difficulty  in  main-  LOSS  of  the 
taining  their  authority  in  the  far  east.     There  two  prov-  Far  East' 
inces  soon  grew  into  independent  states.     These  were 
Bactria  and  Parthia.     In  the  latter,  the  first  great  king  Parthia. 
was  Arsaces,  who  took   the   throne  in  250  B.C.      Even 

before  this  time  the  provinces  of  India  had  been  lost  to 
Syria. 

290.  In  the  west,  Syria  was  constantly  at  war  with  the 
second  great  kingdom  of  Alexander's  Empire  founded  by  The  King- 
Ptolemy  in  Egypt  (§  274).      Each  of  his  successors  was  ^Tpjf 
also  named  Ptolemy,  and  the  state  is,  therefore,  often  called 

the  Empire  of  the  Ptolemies.   Its  capital  was  at  Alexandria  The 
(§  261).    The  rule  of  the  early  Ptolemies  showed  consid-  Violemies- 
erable  statesmanship  and  resulted  in  remarkable  prosper- 
ity.    The  natives  were  left  undisturbed  in  their  old  religion 
and  local  customs,  the  kings  only  requiring  from  them  un- 
bounded quantities  of  grain.     The  real  interest  of  the  commer- 
kings  was  in  commerce.     Alexandria  was  made  the  centre  op^T* 
of  an  extensive  trade  between  east  and  west.     From  Arabia 
and  India  the  goods  were  brought  over  the  Red  sea  and 


under  the 
Ptolemies. 


232     Empires  of  Alexander's  Successors 

through  the  ship-canal  connecting  it~with  the  Nile  to  the 
capital;  thence  they  were  shipped  to  all  the  western 
ports.  This  commerce  required  the  Ptolemies  to  control 
the  sea  and  they  sought  to  possess  the  important  trading 
wars  with  centres  on  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  east  this  brought 
them  into  conflict  with  Syria  for  the  possession  of  Pales- 
tine and  Phoenicia.  During  the  most  of  this  century  they 
were  able  to  hold  these  lands.  Likewise  they  were  prom- 
inent in  the  -#£gean  sea.  They  held  Cyprus  and  were  in 
league  with  many  of  the  free  cities  of  Asia  Minor  and 
Greece.  Thus  they  possessed  a  veritable  Empire, 
culture  291.  Such  a  commercial  state,  so  closely  associated 

with  the  larger  Greek  world,  could  not  but  afford  oppor- 
tunity for  the  growth  of  culture.  Thus  the  kingdom  of 
Alexandria  the  Ptolemies  developed  a  rare  and  brilliant  literary  and 
its  centre.  scjentific  iife.  it  had  its  centre  in  Alexandria  and  was 
The  studiously  encouraged  by  the  kings.  Here  they  founded 

Museum.  ^e  £amous  Museum,  a  group  of  buildings  where  a  com- 
pany of  scholars  were  supported  by  the  state  and  devoted 
themselves  to  literature  and  investigation.  In  the  Museum 
was  the  library,  containing  532,000  manuscripts  collected 
from  all  the  world.  The  Museum  was  not  a  university, 
but  a  home  of  scholars  who  occupied  themselves  with  their 
own  literary  and  scientific  pursuits.  Philology,  math- 
ematics and  the  study  of  nature  and  art  chiefly  engaged 
them.  Poets  praised  the  kings  in  courtly  and  finished 
verse,  or  imitated  and  collected  the  works  of  the  great 
Pastoral  masters  of  the  classic  age.  Yet  a  fresh  and  original  form 
>etry.  o£  poetry  was  produced  by  Theocritus,  whose  praise  of 
pastoral  life  is  expressed  so  naturally  and  exquisitely  as  to 
give  him  lasting  fame.  In  his  delicately  wrought  back- 
ground of  Sicilian  country-life,  with  its  fountains,  shady 


The  Macedonian  Kingdom  233 

oaks,  stalwart  shepherds,  graceful  maidens,  vineyards, 
woodland  flowers  and  murmuring  bees,  he  set  his  simple 
scenes  of  rustic  love.  In  them  the  worldly  and  sated 
Alexandrians  found  intense  delight  and  refreshment. 
Thus  in  the  realm  of  poetry  a  new  and  rich  field  was  dis- 


THE  WORLD 

According  to  Eratosthc 
800  II.  C. 


covered — called  the  Pastoral.     The  Ptolemies  also  intro- 
duced Egyptian  religion  to  the  world  in  the  goddess  Isis  Religion, 
and  the  god  Serapis,  whose  worship,  full  of  mystery  and 
splendor,  spread  very  widely. 

292.  The  third  of  the  kingdoms,  that  of  Macedonia,  the  King- 
was  beset  by  more  obstinate  difficulties  than  those  which  J™^., 
troubled  the  others.     There  was   a  longer  fight  about 
who  should  be  king;  it  was  finally  settled  by  a  descend- 
ant of  Alexander's  general,  Antigonus  (§  273),  Antigonus 
Gonatas,  who  ruled  from  about  280  B.C.  and  left  the 
throne  to  his  descendants.     Another  hindrance  lay  in  the 
persistent  opposition  of  the  Greek  cities  to  the  overlord- 
ship  of  Macedonia.      In  this  struggle  the  Achaean  League 
(§  280)  ran  a  brilliant  career.     About  280  B.C.  it  came 


234     Empires  of  Alexander's  Successors 

Activity  of    forward  as  the  defender  of  freedom  in  the  Peloponnesus. 
Achaean       ^n  a  ^ew  years  most  of  the  leading  cities,  except  Athens  and 
League.       Sparta,  united  with  it.     Under  Aratus  of  Sicyon,  who, 
from  245  B.C.  onward,  was  chosen  "general"  sixteen  times, 
it  reached  its  highest  point.     Even  Sparta  under  its  heroic 
king,  Cleomenes,  was  ready  to  join  it.    But  Aratus  opposed 
him  and  war  ensued,  in  the  course  of  which  Aratus  be- 
trayed the  league  by  calling  in  Macedonia.     The  outcome 
was  the  mastery  of  both  Cleomenes  and  Aratus  by  the 
Macedonians.     Cleomenes  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he  per- 
ished; Aratus,  at  first  in  high  favor  with  Macedonia,  was  at 
last  poisoned  by  the  Macedonian  king,  Philip  V,  in  213  B.C. 
Even  under  the  vigorous  and  patriotic  Philopcemen  the 
league  continued  in  alliance  with  Macedonia  and  contrib- 
The  uted  little  to  the  defence  of  Greek  freedom.    The  ^Etolian 

Lel°guT  League  was  another  flourishing  bulwark  of  defence,  but 
jealousies  between  the  two  leagues  still  further  hindered 
their  service.  The  other  cities  also  were  too  jealous  of 
their  own  rights  to  work  heartily  in  accord  with  the  leagues 
for  their  common  freedom. 

intellectual       293.  This  political  turmoil  did  not  hinder  the  progress 

Athens55  **   °^  ar*  an(^  literature  for  which  Athens  in  the  third  century 

stood  pre-eminent.    That  city  became  the  real  university 

of  the  world,  whither  students  flocked  to  study  philosophy. 

schools  of     Two  leading  schools  of  thought  divided  their  suffrages. 

Philosophy.  The  one  wag  foimded  by  Zeno  (340-265  B.C.),  who  taught 

in  the  Stoa  poilike  or  "  Painted  Porch,"  in  the  heart  of  the 
The  stoic,  city,  a  way  of  life  and  thought  which  was  called  Stoicism. 
He  held  that,  in  the  midst  of  the  seeming  confusion  of 
things  about  us,  there  was  a  real  order,  governed  by  un- 
changeable laws;  that  the  secret  of  life  consists  in  seeing 
this  order  and  obeying  it.  The  chief  word  of  this  philoso- 


Stoicism  and  Epicureanism  235 

phy  was  " virtue,"  and  he  is  the  "wise  man"  who  strives 
after  it.  Everything  else  is  unimportant;  even  life  itself 
is  not  worth  living,  if  virtue  cannot  be  realized.  Virtue 
can  be  found  in  one's  own  soul,  in  that  "reason"  which  is 
man's  way  of  expressing  the  order  of  the  universe.  All 
men  everywhere  in  whom  "reason"  or  "virtue"  rules 
are  brothers.  On  the  other  hand,  Epicurus  (341-270  The  Epi- 
B.C.)  taught  that  true  virtue  is  found  in  "happiness,"  curean- 
everything  that  contributes  to  make  man  happy  should 
be  sought,  while  all  that  is  disturbing  should  be  avoided. 
Hence,  to  him  religion,  which  spoke  of  reward  and 
punishment  from  the  gods  above,  was  harmful  and 
should  be  abolished.  This  philosophy  was  called  after 
its  founder  Epicureanism.  Both  systems  are  illustra- 
tions of  the  broad  cosmopolitan  spirit  of  the  age,  which 
recognized  no  bounds  of  city  or  race.  They  had  a  very 
wide  influence  in  this  age  and  in  the  centuries  following. 
In  Athens,  also,  the  third  century  saw  the  birth  of  the 
New  Comedy,  which,  unlike  the  political  plays  of  Aris-  The  New 
tophanes  (§  200),  took  as  its  theme  the  affairs  of  every- 
day life  and  handled  them  in  a  spirited,  keen,  sympathetic 
and  delightful  way.  The  shady  side  of  contemporary 
manners  was  usually  shown  up,  but  in  a  fashion  to  ridi- 
cule vice  and  applaud  virtue.  Its  chief  representative 
was  Menander  (342-292  B.C.),  only  fragments  of  whose 
plays  have  been  preserved.  So  sure  was  his  touch  and  so 
true  to  reality  that  the  ancients  said  of  him:  "Menander 
and  Life,  which  of  you  is  the  imitator  of  the  other?" 


236    Empires  of  Alexander's  Successors 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW* 
II.   THE   GREEK   EMPIRES 

I.  1'he  Beginnings  of  Greece  and  its  Expansion.  2.  The  First  Attempts 
at  Empire. 

3.  THE  EMPIRES  OF  ALEXANDER  AND  His  SUCCESSORS. 

(i)  Alexander's  Empire.  (2)  The  Successors  of  Alexander:  Who 
shall  succeed  Alexander?  (his  heir,  his  generals,  their  rivalry, 
empire  breaks  up  in  conflict)  —  Greece  in  Alexander's  empire 
(Athens,  the  intellectual  centre,  Aristotle  and  his  new  note,  the 
revolt  on  Alexander's  death,  Crannon) — Greece  under  his  succes- 
sors a  scene  of  struggle  with  a  threefold  outcome — Achaean  and 
jEtolian  leagues — Pyrrhus  of  Epirus — Sicily — Magna  Graecia — 
Pyrrhus  and  Rome — the  Keltic  terror — kingdoms  of  Asia  Minor 
(Pergamum  and  its  art,  Rhodes,  Pontus)— kingdom  of  Syria  (kings 
and  kingship,  wars) — kingdom  of  Ptolemies  (commercial  impor- 
tance, intellectual  life,  museum,  poetry,  religion)  —  kingdom  of 
Macedonia  (difficulties,  Achaean  league,  philosophy  at  Athens, 
new  comedy) — summary  of  the  age — the  Roman  shadow  and  its 
meaning. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  What  events  are  connected  with  the 
names  of  Antipater,  Seleucus,  Pyrrhus,  Aristotle,  Antigonus 
Gonatas,  Ptolemy,  PhilopO2men,  Menander,  Zeno,  Agathocles? 
2.  For  what  are  the  following  noted:  Galatia,  Pergamum, 
Rhodes,  Epirus,  Tarentum?  3.  What  is  meant  by  the 
Museum,  Epicureanism,  pastoral  poetry,  the  Dying  Gaul,  the 
painted  porch?  4.  What  is  the  era  of  Seleucus?  5.  The 
significance  of  the  year  280  B.C. 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  Aristotle  and  Herodotus 
(§  185)  in  respect  to  their  views  of  history.  2.  Compare  the 
Leagues  of  this  period  with  the  Peloponnesian  (§  132)  and  the 
Delian  (§§  161-164)  Leagues. 

TOPICS     FOR     READING    AND     ORAL     REPORT.     1.  The 

Struggles  of  Alexander's  Generals.  Mahaffy,  pp.  43-75;  Plu- 
tarch, Lives  of  Eumenes  and  Demetrius.  2.  Greece  under 

*  This  Outline  includes  §§  294-295,  which  should  be  studied  in  con- 
nection with  it. 


Outcome  of  the  Period  237 

Alexander  and  His  Successors.  Bury,  pp.  823-833;  Shuck- 
burgh,  pp.  300-305.  3.  The  Kingdoms  of  Alexander's  Succes- 
sors. Mahaffy,  pp.  89-95,  m-i4i>  156-162;  Morey,  pp.  317- 
319.  4.  Pergamum  and  the  Artistic  Life  of  the  Time.  Morey, 
pp.  323-328;  Tarbell,  pp.  259-267.  5.  Aristotle.  Bury,  833- 
835;  Capps,  ch.  16;  Jebb,  pp.  129-135;  Murray,  pp.  373-376. 
6.  The  Moral  Philosophers.  Mahaffy,  ch.  1 1 ;  Shuckburgh,  pp. 
306-307.  7.  Alexandria  and  Egyptian  Culture.  Mahaffy,  pp. 
120-131,142-155;  Capps,  ch.  18;  Botsford,  pp.  320-322;  Morey, 
pp.  330-333.  8.  The  Keltic  Terror.  Mahaffy,  ch.  8.  9.  The 
Leagues  of  Greece.  Mahaffy,  ch.  18;  Botsford,  pp.  323-325; 
Shuckburgh,  pp.  311-324.  10.  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus.  Plutarch, 
Life  of  Pyrrhus;  Mahaffy,  ch.  2. 

294.  We  have  come  to  the  end  of  an  epoch — the  period  Summary 
of  Alexander's  Empire  and  the  kingdoms  that  grew  out  °f 
of  it  (331-200  B.C.).  The  important  things  about  it  to 
remember  are:  (i)  the  remarkable  career  of  the  young 
Alexander  who  brought  the  world  to  his  feet  in  little  more 
than  ten  years;  (2)  the  still  more  remarkable  ideas  which 
underlay  his  conquest — the  supremacy  of  the  Greek  ideal  in 
the  world  and  the  blending  of  the  Greek  and  the  Oriental 
in  a  new  imperial  organization  and  civilization;  (3)  the 
failure  of  his  imperial  organization  at  his  death  by  the 
division  of  the  Empire  among  his  ambitious  and  self- 
seeking  generals;  (4)  the  great  kingdoms  that  rose  on  the 
ruins;  (5)  the  persistent  presence  of  the  imperial  ideal 
which  kept  these  kings  fighting  for  the  mastery;  (6)  the 
persistence  of  Greek  freedom  in  the  face  of  imperialism 
as  illustrated  in  the  leagues  and  free  cities;  (7)  the  slow 
but  victorious  advance  of  Alexander's  ideal  of  a  world 
of  Graco-Oriental  civilization;  (8)  the  splendid  progress 
of  Greek  thought  and  art,  inspired  by  this  broader  horizon 
and  richer  life — with  Athens  and  Alexandria  as  its  repre- 
sentatives. 


238    Empires  of  Alexander's  Successors 
The  295.  Upon  the  western  horizon  of  this  Greek  world. 

Shadov 
Rome. 


shadow  of  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Indus,  a  shadow  was 


slowly  creeping  up.  The  Italian  city  of  Rome  had  been 
from  time  to  time  brought  into  touch  with  the  Greeks 
and  became  more  and  more  involved  in  their  affairs.  The 
western  Greek  cities  lay  on  its  border;  its  commerce  in 
the  western  Mediterranean  brought  its  ships  to  Sicily, 
and  made  the  wars  of  Syracuse  and  Carthage  its  concern. 
Pyrrhus  had  represented  the  Greeks  in  a  fruitless  war 
against  its  legions.  Its  shadow  was,  however,  little  noticed, 
because  it  had  imperceptibly  shaded  off  into  the  Greek 
sky.  We  have  seen  how  its  laws  were  copied  after  Greece 
(§191).  It  had  a  treasury  at  Delphi.  Its  navy  in  229  B.C. 
had  punished  the  Illyrian  pirates  and  seized  their  cities, 
thus  making  a  part  of  the  Greek  peninsula  Roman  soil; 
but  so  signal  a  service  to  Greece  had  this  been  regarded 
that  Greek  cities  sent  their  thanks  to  Rome  for  the  exploit, 
and  recognized  these  benefactors  as  of  Greek  lineage.  A 
Ptolemy,  in  his  will,  made  Rome  the  guardian  of  his  son. 
Nor  was  it  certain  that  the  Roman  shadow  was  not  to  be 
full  of  further  blessing  to  this  confused  and  warring  Greek 
world.  Many  looked  thither  for  relief  from  the  rivalries, 
the  treacheries,  the  cruelties  of  cultured  but  ruthless  kings 
Did  it  Mean  and  tyrants.  Whether  it  was  for  good  or  ill,  the  future 
for°Greece?  was  *°  determine.  The  last  and  fatal  step  was  taken  when, 
in  the  war  between  Rome  and  Carthage,  Philip  V  of 
Macedonia,  in  213  B.C.,  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  Cartha- 
TheDe-  ginians  and  declared  war  against  Rome.  With  that  the 
cisive  step.  jace  Qf  t^e  wor^  cnangesj  ROme  comes  on  the  scene  and 

takes  the  foremost  place;  the  history  of  Alexander's  Em- 
pire merges  into  the  history  of  the  greater  Mediterranean 
world  under  the  leadership  of  Rome. 


Summary  of  the  Age  239 

GENERAL   REVIEW  OF   PART   II,  DIVISION  3;  §§  253-295 

331-200  B.C. 

TOPICS  FOR  CLASS  DISCUSSION.  I.  The  main  purpose  mov- 
ing the  leaders  of  world -history  from  331-200  B.C.:  how  far 
was  the  ideal  realized  in  actual  events?  2.  A  comparison  as 
to  origin,  leaders,  aims,  problems  and  historical  development 
of  the  three  kingdoms  rising  out  of  Alexander's  Empire. 

3.  Course  of  the  history  of  Greece  proper  from  331-200  B.C. 

4.  The  great  epochs  of  contact  between  Persia  and  Greece  from 
500  B.C.  to  'the  fall  of  the  Persian  Empire.     5.  The  dates  of  not 
more  than  six  of  the  most  important  events  of  this  age,  with 
reasons  for  so  regarding  them.     6.  How  Aristotle,  Theocritus, 
Zeno  and  Menander  represent  their  age  and  its  spirit.     7.  The 
various  important  epochs  in   the  history  of  Sicily.     8.  The 
history  of  King  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus  as  illustrative  of  the  age. 

MAP  AND  PICTURE  EXERCISES.  1.  Draw  a  map  of  Alex- 
ander's Empire  and  place  on  it  three  cities  founded  by  Alexan- 
der; explain  the  advantages  of  their  location.  2.  Com- 
pare the  Laocobn  (Plate  IX)  with  the  Hermes  (Plate  VIII). 
What  are  the  differences — which  is  higher  art — how  does  each 
represent  the  times  in  which  it  was  produced  ?  3.  Study  the 
Greek  Coins  (Plate  XV).  Observe  the  development  in  them — 
what  facts  for  Greek  life  and  history  in  them— select  the  finest, 
with  reasons  for  the  selection. 

TOPICS  FOR  WRITTEN  PAPERS.  1.  What  Alexander's  Empire 
Meant  for  World-History.  2.  A  Day  in  Alexandria,  250  B.C. 
Kingsley,  Alexandria  and  Her  Schools;  Mahaffy,  Alexander's 
Empire.  3.  Alexander  as  a  General.  4.  A  Visit  to  the  Philo- 
sophical Schools  of  Athens  in  the  Year  275  B.C.  Capes,  Univer- 
sity Life  in  Ancient  Athens.  5.  Alexander's  Cities.  6.  A  Sketch 
of  Alexander's  Campaign  in  India.  7.  The  Career  of  Philopoe- 
men.  Plutarch,  Life  of  Philopcemen.  8.  A  Visit  to  Pergamum. 
Mahaffy,  Greek  Life  and  Thought,  ch.  14.  9.  A  Study  of  the 
Constitution  of  the  Achasan  League.  Mahaffy,  Greek  Life  and 
Thought,  ch.  16;  Freeman,  History  of  Federal  Government, 
see  index.  10.  Write  a  series  of  notes,  explaining  the  allusions 
to  Greek  history  in  Byron's  "The  Isles  of  Greece." 


III.   THE  EMPIRE  OF  ROME 

200  B.C.-A.D.  800 

PRELIMINARY    SURVEY 

Italy  and         296.  The  appearance  of  Rome  in  the  East  about  the 

world8'6™  year  20°  B-C-  shtfts  our  attention  from  the  lands  which 
have  hitherto  occupied  us  and  centres  it  upon  the  penin- 
sula of  Italy.  From  an  early  period  this  land  had  come 
within  the  circle  of  ancient  history.  Back  in  the  fifteenth 
century  its  sea-rovers  reached  the  shores  of  Egypt  and 
from  that  time  took  service  in  the  armies  of  the  Pharaohs. 

Phceni-  The  Phoenician  merchants  visited  its  coasts  and  estab- 
lished trading  posts  round  about  it  in  Africa,  Sicily,  Sar- 

Greeks.  dinia  and  Spain  (§§  56-58).  Soon  the  Greeks  found  it 
out  and  drew  its  people  into  the  sphere  of  their  life  and 
culture.  They  planted  permanent  settlements  in  Sicily, 
established  a  line  of  cities  on  its  southeastern  coast  and 
even  founded  colonies  on  its  western  shore  whence  they 
exchanged  their  goods  and  gave  their  civilization  to  its  peo- 
ples (§§  114-115).  The  heel  of  Italy  was  called  Greater 
Greece,  and  a  Greek  Empire  sprang  up  about  the  Sicilian 
city  of  Syracuse  (§  222).  The  wars  that  shook  the  Eastern 
world  were  felt  in  Italy;  part  of  the  Graeco- Persian  strug- 
gle was  fought  in  Sicily  (§  154),  the  strength  of  the  Athe- 
nian Empire  was  broken  by  the  disaster  of  Syracuse  (§  210). 
It  is  said  that  Alexander  contemplated  the  conquest  of 
Italy.  We  have  seen  how  Pyrrhus  attempted  in  vain  to 
carve  out  for  himself  an  empire  on  Italian  soil  (§  283). 
240 


Italian  Geography  241 

The  series  of  circumstances  which  led  the  states  of  the 
east  to  draw  the  Romans  into  their  political  entanglements 
has  already  been  referred  to  (§  295).  Thus,  in  turning 
to  Italy,  we  turn  not  to  a  new  and  hitherto  unknown  land, 
but  to  one  already  attached  to  the  larger  historic  world. 
Italy  simply  takes  the  central  place;  the  former  leaders 
become  the  followers;  the  west  becomes  the  seat  of  the 
dynamo  that  supplies  power  to  drive  politics  and  civiliza- 
tion to  higher  achievements  in  a  wider  world. 

297.  In  its  physical  geography  Italy  combined  the  char-  Physical 
acteristics  of  both  the  Orient  and  Greece  (§  92),  having  ^JJJ6" 
level  and  broad  plains  intersected  by  stretches  of  wild 
mountain-country,  girt  about  and  pierced  by  the  sea  on 
every  side.     It  may  be  divided  into  four  zones  or  belts,  The  Four 
three  running  side  by  side,  the  fourth  placed  straight  Zones' 
across  their  top.     The  central  of  the  three  parallel  belts 
is  the  great  bow  of  the  Apennine  mountain-range,  some  TheApen- 
eight  hundred  miles  long,  the  back-bone  and  determining  mnes' 
feature  of  all  the  rest.     Starting  far  to  the  left  at  the  head 
of  the  northwestern  sea,  it  moves  at  first  to  the  east,  but 
soon  swings  to  the  south,  broadening  and  rising  as  it  ad- 
vances, until,  in  the  centre  of  Italy,  its  summits  reach  the 
height  of  more  than  nine  thousand  five  hundred  feet  and 
it  becomes  a  highland  of  mingled  valley  and  mountain, 
fifty  miles  wide.     Thence  it  narrows  and  declines,  as  it 
sweeps  toward  the  south  and  west,  and  is  continued  in  the 
westward  ranging  mountains  of  Sicily  and  the  projecting 
highlands  of  North  Africa,  less  than  a  hundred  miles  away. 
Parallel  to  this  long  Apennine  bow,  on  either  side  of  it, 
are  the  two  belts  of  eastern  and  western  coast-land.     The 
eastern  belt  in  its  upper  and  middle  parts  is  narrow;  the  The  Eastern 
sea  lies  close  to  the  mountains,  which  fall  off  steeply  into  Slope' 


242  The  Empire  of  Rome 

it;  the  rivers  are  mountain-torrents;  harbors  there  are 
none,  and  the  stormy  winds  of  the  Adriatic  sweep  along 
the  inhospitable  shores.  To  the  south,  as  the  mountains 
draw  away,  the  plain  widens  out  into  a  broad  upland. 
The  sea  has  broken  into  it  along  the  mountain-side  and 
left  a  broad  promontory  gently  descending  into  the  Medi- 

TheWast-  terranean  to  the  southeast.  The  western  belt,  occupy- 
ing the  concave  side  of  the  bow,  has  an  exactly  opposite 
character.  Its  upper  and  middle  parts  make  a  widening 
plain  through  which  flow  two  considerable  rivers,  the 
Arno  and  the  Tiber.  The  mountains  slope  off  in  gradual 
terraces  to  the  sea;  good  harbors  are  found.  Only  in  the 
lower  portion,  as  the  Apennines  draw  toward  the  south- 
west, does  the  plain  narrow  and  at  last  disappear.  The 

The  North-  upper  Apennines,  in  their  eastern  trend,  form  the  southern 
i  piam.  koun(iary  Of  tne  fourth  belt,  which  lies  east  and  west  across 
the  top  of  the  other  three.  To  the  north  of  this  belt  runs 
the  wall  of  the  Alps,  the  western  end  of  which  was  washed 
by  the  Mediterranean  and  its  eastern  slope  by  the  head 
waters  of  the  Adriatic.  Through  the  district  thus  marked 
out  between  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines  flowed  two  rivers. 
Far  in  the  west  rose  the  Padus  (Po),  which  gathered  the 
mountain-streams  from  south  and  north  and  swept  in  ever- 
increasing  volume  eastward  to  the  Adriatic.  From  the 
northern  Alps  came  down  the  Athesis  (Adige)  and  reached 
the  Adriatic  not  far  north  of  the  Po.  Thus  a  rich 
and  extensive  basin  was  formed,  a  little  world  in  itself,  cut 
off  from  the  north  by  the  Alps  and  from  the  south  by  the 
Apennines.  Entrance  into  it  from  west  and  north  was 
not  easy,  but  in  the  east  the  mountain-streams  pouring  into 
the  Adriatic  had  brought  down  soil  which  they  deposited 
in  the  sea,  pushing  it  steadily  back  until  a  broad  and  open 


Peoples  of  Italy  243 

pathway  had  been  made,  through  which  outsiders  might 
come  from  the  region  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  It  was, 
in  fact,  by  this  approach  that  the  Italian  peninsula  was 
entered  and  settled  by  its  historic  inhabitants. 

298.  History  has  preserved  no  record  of  this  incoming.   The  Peo- 
Only  a  comparison  of  the  languages  spoken  by  the  peoples  ?le^ ot 
reveals  their  relationship.     The  historically  unimportant 
Ligurians,  occupying  the  northwestern  mountains  about  Ligurians. 
the  Mediterranean,  are  set  apart  as  a  separate  people,  as 
are  also  the  Etruscans,  a  strong  and  progressive  race,  who  Etruscans 
filled  the  wide  upper  plain  on  the  inside  of  the  Apennine 
bow  from  the  mountains  to  the  sea  southward  as  far  as  the 
Tiber.     The  great  mass  of  the  remaining  peoples  spoke 
the  dialects  of  a  common  speech  which  allies  them  to  the 
historic  inhabitants  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  and  Greece, 
the  Indo-European  (§  9).     On  the  lowest  extremity  of  the 
eastern  slope,  Illyrians  from  across  the  sea  had  settled  niyrians. 
under  the  name  of  the  lapygians  in  the  districts  of  Apu- 
lia and  Calabria.     To  them  were  closely  allied  theVen- 
eti  in  the  far  northeast,  the  latest  comers.      The  rest  of 
the  peninsula  was  the  home  of  the  Italian  stock,  of  which   Italians 
there  were  several  branches.     Of  that  in  the  southwest  the 
most  famous  was  the  Latin  people  in  the  plain  south  of 
the  Tiber;  the  inhabitants  of  Sicily  belonged  to  the  same 
branch.     The    mountaineers    formed    another    vigorous 
branch,  called,  from  their  chief  peoples,  the  Umbro-Sa 
bellians.     The  Umbrians   lived  in  the   northern  Apen 
nines  overlooking  Etruria;  the  Sabellians  were  split  into 
several  tribes  occupying  the  mountain-valleys  of  the  centre 
and  south.   The  most  vigorous  and  numerous  stock  among 
them  was  the  Samnites.     The  northern  plain  of  the  Po 
was  the  seat  of  mixed  populations,  a  kind  of  vestibule  for 


244  The  Empire  of  Rome 


peoples  to  enter  and  mingle  before  pushing  on  southward 
to  permanent  homes.     Already  the  Kelts  from  the  north 


THE  DISTRIBUTION 

OF  THE 

EARLIEST   PEOPLES 
OF  ITALY. 


4 


"V* 


Y  RRH  ENl^A  N 
SEA 


X* ' 


were  the  predominating  element  among  them — a  branch 
of  the  Indo-European  family. 


Geography  and  History  in  Italy      245 

299.  Italy,  thrust  like  a  limb  from  the  trunk  of  Europe  influence 
down  into  the  Mediterranean,  was  given  by  its  position  Geo^phy 
an  important  part  to  play  in  the  Mediterranean  world.  onitsHis- 
Like  Greece,  it  was  in  the  pathway  of  history  advancing 
westward.     Yet,  unlike  Greece  (§93),  it  did  not  invite 

and  embrace  its  opportunity,  but  rather  repelled  it.  Its 
eastern  coast  is  inhospitable  with  forbidding  mountains 
and  an  absence  of  harbors.  To  get  at  Italy  you  must  reach 
its  western  coasts ;  it  faces  the  setting  sun.  On  that  side  The  west- 
are  the  broad  plains  and  the  harbors.  Hence,  westward- 
moving  civilization  was  slow  in  getting  round  the  barrier; 
it  lingered  long  on  the  southeastern  shores  and  in  Sicily 
before  moving  up  to  the  heart  of  the  peninsula.  Yet  it  is 
evident  that  the  power  which  was  to  move  Italy  must  be 
situated  on  its  western  side. 

300.  In  spite  of  the  grim  eastern  shore,  there  was  an  TheProb- 
abundance  of  easy  approaches  to  Italy.     In  the  north,  ^Sence. 
passes  led  down  through  the  Alps,  to  the  valley  of  the  Po. 

The  long  coast-line  of  the  west  and  south  was  open.  This 
made  a  problem  for  Italy — the  problem  of  defence  against 
attacks  from  without  which  every  political  power  that  has 
held  Italy  has  had  to  solve.  How  different  was  Greece 
in  this  respect.  For  Italy  the  solution  of  the  problem 
depended  on  unity  within  and  command  of  the  sea. 

301.  But  unity  within  Italy  was  made  difficult  by  the  contrast  of 
opposition  of  highland  and  plain.     The  wide  Apennine  fnfpuiL 
region  was  the  home  of  vigorous  tribes  who  envied  the 
prosperity  of  the  plain  and  sallied  out  from  time  to  time 

to  obtain  their  share  in  it — a  proceeding  which  the  plains- 
men did  not  relish  and  from  which  they  must  defend  them- 
selves until  the  time  came  to  settle  once  for  all  which  should 
be  master. 


246 


The  Empire  of  Rome 


Origin  of 
Rome. 


Its  Histori 
Secret. 


Epochs  of 
its  History 

di  The 
Making  of 
Rome. 


(a)  Rome's 

Western 

Empire 


302.  Out  of  conditions  such  as  these  Rome  emerged, 
a  city  on  the  bank  of  the  Tiber,  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
western  plain,  equidistant  from  the  sea  and  the  mountains. 
It  was  made  up  of  tribes  of  Latin  stock  united  by  mutual 
necessities  and  interests  in  a  common  city-state.  Its 
origin  and  early  history  are  veiled  in  mists  of  myth  and 
legend  through  which  actual  history  vaguely  glimmers. 
But,  from  the  first,  the  chief  interest  for  the  student  of 
Ancient  History  centres  in  the  relation  of  Rome  to  sur- 
rounding peoples  in  ever-widening  circles.  These  varying 
relations  make  the  framework  about  which  gathers  the 
stately  structure  of  its  brilliant  history. 

3°3'  We  now  trace  its  history  in  broadest  outline.  At  first  it  is 
Italy  that  makes  Rome;  the  forces  that  control  and  shape  early  Italy 
determine  Rome's  life.  Chief  among  these  was  the  expansion  of  the 
Etruscan  communities.  This  placed  a  line  of  Etruscan  kings  in 
power  at  Rome  to  500  B.C.  The  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  saw 
the  collapse  of  Etruscan  power  in  Italy,  which  was  followed  by  the 
overthrow  of  the  Etruscan  kings  at  Rome.  Rome  became  an  aristo- 
cratic republic  like  those  of  early  Greece  (§  106).  The  new  govern- 
ment soon  made  itself  a  power  among  the  adjacent  communities  and 
steadily  advanced  to  the  headship  among  Italian  states.  The  former 
relation  was  reversed;  Rome  became  leader  and  mistress  of  the  Ital- 
ian communities.  Troubles  with  the  Greeks  of  the  southeast  cul- 
minated in  the  war  with  Pyrrhus  (§  283),  which  resulted  in  the  re- 
duction of  Greater  Greece  under  Roman  authority.  Thus  by  265  B  c. 
Rome  had  united  under  her  leadership,  either  as  citizens  or  allies, 
most  of  the  communities  of  Italy  south  of  the  Padus  (Po).  But, 
instead  of  bringing  relief,  this  unity  of  Italy  laid  new  demands  upon 
Rome.  The  world  of  the  western  Mediterranean,  of  which  Italy 
was  a  part,  was  dominated  by  the  prosperous  and  aggressive  city  of 
Carthage  (§58).  The  advance  of  Carthage  into  Sicily  brought  on 
war  with  Rome.  In  this  war  Rome  was  finally  successful,  after  a 
long  struggle.  Carthage  fell,  and  Rome  now  became  ruler  of  the 
western  Mediterranean  lands,  an  imperial  state  (256-202  B.C  ).  But 


CHART  OF   ROMAN   HISTORY       500-200  B.C. 


H 

INTERNAL  HISTORY 

EXTERNAL  EVENTS 

493  Secession  of  plebs  tribunes  KranU-d. 

493  Latin  League  established. 

466  League  of  Home  with  the  Hernlci.                > 

- 

474  Temporary  peace  witli  Veil.                          £ 

T 

m 

171    Pnblillan  Law     Plebeian  Assembly  reco 

Rlll/ed. 

H 

g 

2 

I 

6 

t 

* 

I" 

g 

451   Uecemvirate 

"' 

454  Embassy  to  Greece  to  studyGreek  Law(?)- 

4  19  Valerio-Horatlan  Laws.    Comitla  Tribut 

a  established. 

445  Canuleiau  I.aw.   Intermarriage  betweei 

the  orders. 

r 

g^ 

•1  1  1    ('..n-ul.u     i  '  :i.  ,:,!••        !i  >-i-u. 

5 

435  Censors  Appointed. 

? 

1  = 

j 

iS. 

J 

It 

3 

396  Capture  of  Veil  by  Rome. 

9 

390  Capture  of  Koine  by  the  Gauls. 

367  Licinlo-Sextlan  Laws.  Consulship  opaneJ 

to  plebs 

s 
S 

1B4  Circus  en-cted. 

i 

358  Latin  league  renewed;  Latins  subordinate. 

1                            r. 

H     | 

350  Gauls  cease  to  be  dangerous  to  Italy. 

J50  First  plebeian  Censor. 

q     I 

343 

j     First  Samnlte  War. 

ff 

341 

*yj  I'liblillaii  Law.     Senate's  assent  to  meas 

ires  of 

= 

310 

Comitla  given  before  latler  votes. 

| 

!    Latin  War. 

27  First  proconsul  appointed. 

51 

326  Second  Samnlte  War. 

390 

=     ?• 

|     321  Battle  of  Can,  line  Forks. 

312  Appius  Claudius  increases  number  of  fully  qual- 

1    1 

i 

ified  citizens. 

0          S 

t                            '  * 

| 

304 

04  Official  calendar  published. 

i" 

29S  Third  Samnlle  War. 

300  Ogulnian  Law.     Priesthoods  open  to  pie 

W 

• 

1     293  Battle  of  Sentinum. 

'"JD 

i- 

2110  Samnites  made  allies. 

i 

<7  Hoi  -tenslan  Law.     Senate's  assent  to  met 

sures  of 

281  "War  with  Pyrrbua. 

Comitla  not  required. 

j 

;     275  Battle  ol  Beneventum 

r.!i  f,,  nun,  ,11  coinage  for  Italy  Introduced. 

205     ^~ 

272  Magna  Gnucia  subdued 

204   First  Piinlr  War. 

i|    s 

-/ 

j 

\'=    \ 

.", 

242  Roman  Victory  at  the  Agates  Islands 

:l    Keoi-ani/atloti  ofComitia  Centnriata  •»}, 
Tril.es  lixed  ill  thil  ty-live. 

iff  8     * 

- 

Sicily  becomes  the  flrst  Roman  province. 

\* 

i  s"  i       z 

" 

31  Province  of  Sardinia-Corsica 

\r. 

is  i    j       i 

1 

U?  I 

III 

! 

3 

22  Con.|ii-st  of  Cisalpine  Gaul. 
•2  s  s,.,,.,u,i  i-iiiii.-  War. 
217  Battle  of  Lake  Traslmeniw 
2111  Battle  of  Cannae. 

I 

1 

211  Romans  take  Ciipua. 

j 

20'.i  Roman*  take  Tarentum. 

!    ! 

207  Batll.-oftlie  Metaiirus. 

:    ! 

01     202  Bailie  of  X.anm. 

Outline  of  Roman  History  247 

she  could  not  stop  here.     Commerce  linked  the  western  to  the  east-   (3)  Rome's 
ern  Mediterranean,  and  the  wars  with  Carthage  had  already  brought   East^rn 
Rome  into  difficulties  with  the  king  of  Macedonia.     All  things  drove 
Rome  forward  to  take  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  east.     A  period  of 
seventy  years  follows  (202-133  B.C.),  during  which  Macedonia  was 
overcome  and  the  kingdoms  of  Asia  Minor,  the  empires  of  Syria  and 
Egypt,  recognized  Rome's  predominance  in  the  affairs  of  the  East. 
The  whole  Mediterranean  coast,  from  Alexandria  to  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules,  was  made  up  of  states  allied  to  Rome  or  dependent  upon 
her  word  of  power. 

During  these  centuries,  from  500-133  B.C.,  the  government  of   Internal 
Rome  was  passing  through  some  great  changes.     The  ruling  aristoc-   Chanses 
racy  was  at  first  in  possession  of  all  political  rights.     But  little  by   these 
little  the  people  asserted  themselves;  they  secured  the  publication  of  Epochs, 
the  laws  and  admission  to  the  Senate,  the  chief  council  of  the  state; 
they  obtained  power  to  elect  magistrates  and  make  laws.     But,  hav- 
ing gained  these  rights,  they  were  willing  in  the  stress  of  constant 
wars  to  let  the  actual  power  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  Senate,  which 
administered  the  state  by  the  magistrates.     But  as  the  state  grew, 
the  task  became  too  great  and  the  Senate  began  to  fail  in  its  work 
It  seemed  as  though  the  conquests  of  Rome  were  to  prove  its  ruin. 
The  people  sought  to  take  charge  of  affairs  again.     The  result  was 
internal  struggle,  begun  in  133  B.C.     The  attempt  failed.     Victorious 
generals,  who,  as  officials  of  the  state,  had  extended  Rome's  power   Reorgani- 
westward  to  Britain  and  eastward  to  the  Euphrates,  came  forward.    zation- 
Marius,  Sulla,  Pompey,  Crassus,  Julius  Caesar,  strove  for  leadership. 
The  victor  was  Julius  Caesar,  who  gathered  into  his  hands  all  the 
constitutional  powers  of  government.     Although  he  was  assassinated 
in  44  B.C.,  he  prepared  the  way  for  a  reorganization  of  the  state. 

Caesar's  nephew,  Octavius,  afterward  called  Augustus  (28  B.C.-A.D.    (4)  Rome's 
14),  joined  with  the  Senate  in  a  new  system  of  government  in  which   ^or!' 
the  old  constitution  was  transformed  in  the  interests  of  Rome's  im- 
perial power.     A  great  state  was  created  with  organizing  and  civil- 
izing power  on  a  grand  scale.     The  world,  from  the  Euphrates  river 
to  the  British  Isles,  had  peace  and  began  to  prosper.     One  language, 
one  law,  one  culture  spread  throughout  the  vast  region.     Under  the 
successors  of  Augustus,  the  Roman  emperors,  the  same  prosperity  con- 
tinued for  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  (A.D,  14-160).      About  the 


248  The  Empire  of  Rome 

middle  of  the  second  century  A.D.,  barbarian  tribes  from  the  north 
crossed  the  borders  of  the  empire.  They  continued  to  press  forward, 
and  during  the  third  century  wrought  havoc  in  the  Imperial  state. 

A  renewal  of  strength  was  brought  about  by  the  reorganization  of 
the  government  at  the  end  of  the  third  century.  The  Imperial  capi- 
tal was  removed  from  Rome  to  Constantinople  on  the  site  of  the  old 
Greek  city  of  Byzantium.  The  Christian  religion,  which  had  sprung 
up  in  the  Empire  and  had  grown  great  in  spite  of  persecution,  was 
made  the  state  religion.  Of  its  ministers  the  bishop  of  Rome  came 
forward  as  a  leader  of  the  Church  in  the  west.  He  was  called 
Pope  ("Father"),  and  had  wide  influence  upon  the  barbarians, 
many  of  whom  accepted  Christianity. 

Thus  strengthened,  the  Empire  withstood  the  invaders  for  a  cen- 
tury (A.D.  284-395).  In  A.D.  395  the  flood  of  barbarians  poured 
across  the  frontiers  and  kingdoms  were  set  up  in  the  Empire  over 
which  the  emperors  had  only  nominal  authority.  The  four  centuries, 
from  A.D.  400-800,  were  occupied  with  the  ever  feebler  struggles  of 
the  Empire  with  these  kingdoms.  At  last  Charlemagne,  king  of  the 
Franks,  who  had  built  up  a  great  kingdom  in  the  west,  was  in  A.D. 
800  crowned  Emperor  of  the  Romans  by  the  Pope.  The  Roman 
Empire  in  the  east  was  still  in  existence,  but  hardly  more  than  a 
shadow,  and  the  new  Roman  Empire  was  Roman  in  little  more  than 
name.  In  reality  the  barbarians  had  come  off  victorious,  and  the 
World-Empire  of  Rome  was  destroyed. 

The  Grand        3<>4'  The  grand  divisions  of  this  period  are  therefore 
Divisions.     the  f0nowing: 

III.  THE  EMPIRE  OF  ROME,  200  B.C.-A.D.  800 

1.  The  Making  of  Rome,  to  50x5  B.C. 

2.  Rome's  Western  Empire,  50x3-200  B.C. 

3.  Rome's  Eastern  Empire,  200-44  B-c- 

4.  Rome's  World- Empire,  44  B.C.-A.D.  800 


The  Empire  of  Rome  249 

OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 

III.    THE   EMPIRE   OF   ROME 

Preliminary  Survey:  Early  and  various  points  of  contact  between  the 
East,  Italy  and  Rome — physical  geography  of  Italy  (the  four 
belts — characterized) — peoples  (basis  of  organization — early  peo- 
ples— Italian  stock,  divisions  of  it) — relation  of  geography  and 
history  in  Italy — effect  on  Rome — course  of  Roman  history — grand 
divisions. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  Name  the  chief  rivers  of  Italy  and 
trace  them  on  the  map.  2.  Make  a  chart  of  the  peoples  of 
Italy,  showing  their  relationship.  3.  Under  each  of  the  main 
heads  in  which  Roman  history  is  divided  in  §  304,  make  a  list 
of  important  events  mentioned  in  §  303.  4.  Draw  up  a  list  of 
the  early  relations  of  Italy  and  the  East,  look  up  the  references 
and  discuss  them  in  detail. 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  The 
Geography  of  Italy.  Dionysiusin  Munro,  p.  2;  How  and  Leigh, 
ch.  i;  Shuckburgh,  ch.  2;  Botsford,  p.  15;  Myres,  ch.  i. 
2.  Italian  Peoples.  How  and  Leigh,  ch.  2;  Shuckburgh,  ch.  3; 
Myres,  ch.  2.  3.  Divisions  of  Roman  History.  Shuckburgh, 
ch.  i. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY* 

For  bibliography  for  advanced  students  and  teachers,  see  Appendix  I. 

PLUTARCH.  Translation  by  Dryden,  edited  by  Clough.  5  vols.  Little, 
Brown  and  Co.;  or  by  Stewart  and  Long.  4  vols.  Bohn. 

MUNRO.  A  Source  Book  of  Roman  History.  D.  C.  Heath  and  Co.  An 
indispensable  collection  of  historical  materials  covering  a  variety  of 
phases  of  Roman  life.  English  translations. 

SHUCKBURGH.  A  History  of  Rome  to  the  Battle  of  Actium.  Macmillan 
Co.  This  and  the  two  following  works  are  by  Englishmen  and  cor- 
respond to  Bury's  History  of  Greece  (p.  75),  but  are  neither  so  full 
nor  so  well  written.  Not  illustrated. 

How  AND  LEIGH.  A  History  of  Rome  to  the  Death  of  Casar.  Longmans. 
Illustrated. 

MYRES.  A  History  of  Rome.  Rivingtons.  (To  the  death  of  Augus- 
tus.) The  latest  one-volume  history  which  goes  into  detail. 

*  For  previous  bibliographies  see  pp.  4,  10,  75. 


'250  The  Making  of  Rome 

MOKEY.     Outlines  of  Roman  History.     American  Book  Co.     A  brief 

scholarly  sketch,  well  organized,  with  useful  helps. 
BOTSFORD.     A  History  of  Rome.     Macmillan  Co.     (To  Charlemagne.) 

Well  written  and  illustrated.     The  best  book  of  its  size  covering  the 

whole  field. 
HORTON.     A  History  of  the  Romans.     (To  the  reign  of  Augustus.)     The 

most  brilliantly  written  single  volume. 
SEIGNOBOS.     History  of  the  Roman  People.     Holt.     Covers  the  whole 

period.     Picturesque,  anecdotal,  simply  written, 
MATHESON.     Skeleton   Outline   of  Roman  History.    Longmans.     (To 

the  death  of  Augustus.)     Chiefly  valuable  for  detailed  chronology. 
ABBOTT.     Roman  Political  Institutions.     Ginn  and  Co.     The  best  single 

book  on  the  subject  in  moderate  compass. 
FOWLER.     The  City  State  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.     See  p.  76. 
WILKINS.     Roman  Antiquities  (History  Primer).    American  Book  Co 

An  excellent  brief  summary  of  the  essentials. 

JOHNSTON.     The  Private  Life  of  the  Romans.     Chicago:  Scott,  Fores- 
man  and  Co.     A  much  more  elaborate  work  than  that  of  Wilkins. 
LAING.     Masterpieces  of  Latin  Literature.     Houghton,  Mifflin  and  Co. 

A  serviceable  single  volume  of  literary  extracts  with  scholarly  in 

troductions. 
MACKAIL.     Latin  Literature.     Scribners.     Of  the  same  type  as  Murray's 

Greek  Literature  (p.  76).     A  little  above  a  beginner. 


1.— THE   MAKING    OF   ROME 

To  500  B.C. 

The  305.  Three  factors  contributed  to  the  making  of  Rome : 

Factors,  ^  -^  geographical  position,  (2)  the  mixture  of  peoples 
that  formed  it,  (3)  the  influences  affecting  the  early  life 
of  Italy  out  of  which  it  sprang. 

(i)  its  306.  Rome  lay  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Tiber,  the  chief 

navigable  river  of  the  western  slope.  It  skirted  the  Etru- 
rian  plain  and  opened  a  way  into  the  highlands  of  the  cen- 
tral and  upper  Apennines.  An  easy  ford  near  by  the  city 
was  the  natural  crossing  from  the  Latin  to  the  Etrurian 


Physical  Geography  of  Rome        251 

country.   These  facts  made  Rome  a  place  where  roads  met, 
through  which  traders  passed ;  they  gave  it  great  commer-  A  com- 
cial  importance.     At  the  same  time  it  was  midway  between  ^^trl 
the  sea  and  the  mountains,  far  enough  away  from  the  one 
to  be  protected  from  the  sea-rovers  that  preyed  upon  com-   Protected, 
merce,  and  sufficiently  distant  from  the  other  to  have 
timely  warning  of  the  raids  of  the  mountaineers.     The 
city  was,  also,  placed  on  a  series  of  low  hills,  which  fringed 
the  northern  border  of  the  Latin  land;  the  rude  fortifica- 
tions on  their  summits  were  sufficient  to  guard  the  inhabi- 
tants against  attack  and  to  enable  them  to  control  the  land 
round  about.     Thus  the  city  was  not  only  commercially 
important,  but  had  an  independent  position.     It  was  cen-   independ- 
tral  and  yet  isolated,  in  the  midst  of  the  plain  and  yet  se-   ent 
cure  from  interference — an  ideal  site  destined  to  greatness. 
A  river,  a  ford,  a  fortress — these  were  the  chief  physical 
factors  contributing  to  the  making  of  Rome. 

307.  Rome  is  said  to  have  been  built  on  seven  hills.  The  Seven 
The  central  and  most  important  one,  called  the  Palatine,  HlUs 
stood  isolated.  It  was  almost  square,  with  its  corners 
turned  to  the  four  points  of  the  compass,  and  almost  di- 
rectly opposite  the  river-ford.  Back  of  it  and  away  from 
the  river,  standing  side  by  side,  were  other  hills,  calledj 
respectively,  the  Caelian,  the  Esquiline,  the  Viminal 
and  the  Quirinal.  On  their  eastern  side  they  fell  away 
to  the  plain.  South  of  it,  overlooking  the  river,  was  the 
Aventine  hill;  north  of  it  the  Capitoline,  isolated  and 
steep.  Across  the  river,  lying  over  against  the  ford,  was 
the  ridge  called  the  Janiculum.  In  the  narrow  ravines 
and  valleys  between  these  hills  were  the  roads  and  open 
spaces  which  came  to  be  famous  in  history.  Thus,  be- 
tween the  Aventine  and  the  Caelian  ran  the  Appian  Way; 


252 


The  Making  of  Rome 


.2)  The 
U  don  of 
Peoples. 


the  Circus  Maximus  (where  the  public  games  were  held) 
lay  between  the  Aventine  and  the  Palatine;  the  Forum 
(the  market  and  place  of  citizen-assembly)  to  the  north 
of  the  Palatine;  where  the  Tiber  makes  a  great  bend,  the 


low  stretch  between  it  and  the  Capitoline,  the  Campus 
Martius  (the  "Field  of  Mars,"  where  the  army  exercised). 
308.  Such  a  site  naturally  gathered  people  to  it  from 
all  sides.  Traders  were  attracted  by  the  commercial  op- 
portunities. Outlaws  and  rovers  found  in  its  fortress  a 
safe  hiding-place.  Peasants  from  the  surrounding  country 
made  its  hills  their  refuge,  both  from  the  malaria  of  the 


People  and  Organization  253 

low-lying  plains  and  from  the  attacks  of  the  mountaineers. 
The  men  who  flocked  to  it  were,  likewise,  of  different  races. 
All  regarded  it  as  neutral  ground.  The  legends  tell  us 
that  Latins  were  settled  on  the  Palatine,  Etruscans  on  the 
Caelian,  and  Sabines,  a  branch  of  the  mountain  Sabellians, 
on  the  Quirinal.  The  result  of  this  mixture  was  two- 
fold: (a)  it  made  the  Romans  a  strong  people  of  varied  The  Effect 
characteristics,  pushing  forward  in  many  directions;  (b) 
they  were  forced  to  respect  one  another's  rights,  which 
were  clearly  marked  out  by  distinct  agreements.  A  deep 
sense  of  the  importance  and  value  of  Law  as  a  regulating 
force  in  public  and  private  life  was  impressed  upon  them 
from  the  beginning.  As  a  result  the  practical  sense  for 
government,  based  upon  the  legal  recognition  of  rights 
and  duties,  came  to  be  one  of  the  chief  characteristics  of 
the  Roman  people. 

Vergil,  one  of  Rome's  greatest  poets,  has  immortalized  this  Roman 
sense  for  government  in  the  famous  lines  of  the  "^Eneid  "  (vi,  851- 

853): 

Thine,  O  Roman,  remember,  to  reign  over  every  race! 
These  be  thine  arts,  thy  glories,  the  ways  of  peace  to  proclaim, 
Mercy  to  show  to  the  fallen,  the  proud  with  battle  to  tame! 

309.  Each  of  the  three  communities  was  organized  on  Earliest 
the  tribal  basis,  as  in  Greece  (§  105).    The  bond  of  union  £*aniz8 
was  blood-relationship.     The  fundamental  unit  was  the 
family,  and  the  head  of  the  family  was  the  father  (pater). 
He  had  unlimited  authority,  even  to  the  putting  of  his  chil- 
dren to  death.     The  family  grew  into  a  larger  unity  called 
the  "House"   (gens'),  while   the  power  of  the  fathers 
continued.     A    natural    outgrowth    of  this   expansion 
of  the  family  was  the  greater  power  and  importance 
of   some  houses  which  were    called    patricii,    "patri- 


254  The  Making  of  Rome 

cians,"  corresponding  to  the  Greek  aristocracy  (§  106). 
Over  against  them  the  mass  of  the  people  was  called 
"plebeians."  Politically,  the  tribe  was  organized  with 
a  tribal  king  at  the  head,  his  council  of  elders 
about  him  (called  patres,  "fathers,"  or,  because  they 
were  old  men,  senatus,  the  "senate"),  and  the  public 
assembly  of  the  citizens  gathered  for  war.  Within 
the  tribe  were  circles  of  blood  kinsmen,  called  curia; 
when  the  public  assembly  was  summoned,  it  came  to- 
gether (coire)  and  did  business  by  curia  and  hence 
was  called  the  Comitia  Curiata.  This  organization 
was  carried  over  into  the  new  community,  which  at 
Rome  a  some  unknown  period  was  formed  out  of  the  tribes 
cuy-state.  ^^  peoples  gathered  on  the  Roman  hills.  The  city- 
state  of  Rome  came  into  existence,  like  those  in  Greece 
(§  108).  The  traditional  date  of  this  act  was  753  B.C., 
and  from  it  the  Romans  counted  the  years  of  their 
history.* 

The  310.  About  this  natural  and  prosaic  origin  of  Rome  the  Romans 

Legends  ^  wove  a  varjety  of  picturesque  stories  which  were  preserved  and  put 
Beginning.  m  order  by  their  historians  many  centuries  later.  In  these  legends 
the  Roman  people  were  connected  with  ^Eneas,  one  of  the  heroes 
of  Troy  (§  102),  who  wandered  to  Italy  and  married  Lavinia, 
daughter  of  Latinus,  king  of  Latium.  One  of  his  descendants, 
Rhea,  gave  birth  to  twin  sons,  Romulus  and  Remus;  their  father 
was  the  god  Mars.  Shortly  after  their  birth,  their  wicked  uncle, 
the  king,  ordered  them  to  be  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  but  the  river 
yielded  them  up  to  a  herdsman,  who  brought  them  up  as  his  children. 
On  growing  up,  they  discovered  their  real  origin,  killed  their  uncle 
and  proceeded  to  found  a  city.  A  quarrel  arising  between  them, 

*  Thus  A.u.c.  (anno  urbis  conditae,  "  in  the  year  of  the  founding  of 
the  city,"  or  "ab  urbe  condita,"  "from  the  founding  of  the  city")  cor- 
responds to  our  A.D.  (Anno  Domini,  "in  the  year  of  the  Lord"). 


The  Story  of  Romulus  255 

Romulus  killed  his  brother  and  became  founder  and  king  of  the  city, 
called  Rome  after  his  name.  He  gave  the  city  its  laws  and  religion, 
invited  all  men  desirous  of  change  and  advancement  to  become  its 
citizens,  and  appointed  one  hundred  of  them  senators.  In  order  to 
secure  wives  for  his  people,  he  proclaimed  a  festival  and  invited  neigh 
boring  peoples  to  the  spectacle;  when  they  had  gathered,  on  a  signal 
his  men  seized  their  daughters  and  took  them  as  wives.  A  fierce 
war  arising  in  consequence,  Romulus  defeated  all  his  enemies  except 
the  Sabines,  who  were  induced,  by  the  intercession  of  the  Roman 
women,  their  daughters,  at  the  crisis  of  a  hot  battle,  to  make  peace 
and  join  the  new  community.  Romulus,  not  long  after,  was  carried 
away  into  heaven.  He  was  followed  in  the  kingship  by  the  wise 
and  pious  Numa  Pompilius,  whose  achievement  it  was  to  organize 
the  religion  and  civilization  of  Rome.  His  wife  was  a  goddess,  the 
nymph  Egeria,  whom  he  was  wont  to  meet  and  consult  in  a  grove 
whence  a  spring  flowed.  Tullus  Hostilius  succeeded  him,  a  war- 
rior who  fought  with  Alba  Longa  and  overthrew  the  Albans.  In 
this  war  there  were  on  one  occasion  three  twin  brothers  in  either  army, 
the  Roman  Horatii  and  the  Alban  Curiatii,  who  agreed  to  fight  a 
combat,  the  issue  of  which  was  to  determine  the  war.  The  Horatii 
conquered,  one  brother  surviving.  On  his  return  home,  his  sister, 
who  was  betrothed  to  one  of  the  slain  Curiatii,  lamented  grievously. 
This  so  enraged  the  victor  that  he  slew  her.  About  to  be  put  to  death 
by  the  judges  for  this  crime,  he  appealed  to  the  people,  who  acquitted 
him.  Tullus  was  followed  by  Ancus  Marcius,  a  grandson  of 
Numa,  who  won  considerable  victories  over  the  Latins  and  added 
people  and  territory  to  the  city.  Such,  according  to  the  legends, 
was  the  origin  and  early  history  of  Rome. 

311.  Rome  was  at  the  beginning  only  an  insignificant  <3)  iui; 
city-state  of  Italy.     A  long  history  of  Italian  progress  J££" 
in  civilization  and  politics  had  unrolled  before  its  birth 
and  contributed  to  its  making.     In  the  first  place,  it 
was  a  city  of  Latium,  the  land  of  the  Latins.     The  Latium 
cities  of  Latium  had  long  formed  a  league,  and  the  League. 
Romans,  as  chiefly  of  the  Latin  stock,  would  naturally 


256  The  Making  of  Rome 

form  part  of  it.  The  League  had  its  centre  in  the 
city  of  Alba  Longa,  where  representatives  of  thirty 
cities  met  yearly,  united  in  worship  of  the  god,  Jupiter, 
and  deliberated  on  affairs  of  common  interest.  Thus 
an  opportunity  was  offered  Rome  of  taking  part  in  the 
life  of  a  larger  world.  Second,  the  various  civilizing 
and  progressive  influences  of  the  East  had  long  been 
affecting  the  Italian  communities  of  the  west  coast  and 
creating  a  new  and  vigorous  social  and  political  life, 
rhe  Of  all  these  communities,  the  Etruscans  had  been 

Develop-      most  capable  of  profiting  by  such  influences.     They 
men*-          had,  at  a  very  early  period,  expanded  their  borders 
southward  to  the  Tiber  and  eastward  to  the  Apennines; 
they  had  seats  in  the  valley  of  the  Po,  and  from  the  sea- 
coast    made    voyages   throughout  the  Tyrrhenian  sea 
to   Corsica   and  Sardinia.     The  Phoenicians  brought 
them  into  contact  with  Oriental  civilization,  and  the 
Greeks  gave  to  them  their  own  rich  and  splendid  achieve- 
ments in  art  and  culture.      Egyptian  seals  and  Greek 
vases  have  been  found. in  Etruscan  graves.     Etruscan 
art  took  such  objects  as  models  and  developed  skill  in 
the  making  of  weapons  of  war  and  objects  of  trade. 
The  commerce  of  their  cities  grew;  they  became  rich 
The  Greek    and  powerful.     As  the  Greeks  began  to  settle  in  Italy, 
influence,     ^gjj.  merchants  brought  along  with  their  wares  the 
intellectual  riches  of  the  mother-country.      From  the 
Greek  colonies  Italy  learned  the  art   of  writing,  the 
names  and  worship  of  Greek  gods,  and  Greek  arts  of 
Etruscan      life.     Under  these  influences  the  Etruscan  communities 
fndiiuie  of  began  to  expand  toward  the  south,  and  by  the  sixth 
Rome.         century  (600  B.C.)  appear  to  have  been  in  possession  of 
the  greater  part  of  the  western  plain  as  far  as  the  Greek 


Stones  of  the  Etruscan  Kings        257 

city  of  Cyme.      In  this  forward  movement  Rome  fell 
under  their  power.     Etruscan  kings  ruled  over  it. 

312.  During  the  reign  of  Ancus  Marcius— the  Roman  legends  go 
on  to  relate — there  came  to  Rome  from  Tarquinii  in  Etruria  a  man 
whose  name  was  Lucius  Tarquinius  Priscus.  It  was  said  that 
on  the  journey  to  Rome  an  omen  of  his  future  greatness  was  given; 
an  eagle  flew  down,  took  off  his  cap,  circled  about  him  and  replaced 
it.  He  grew  in  wealth  and  influence  and  was  appointed  guardian  of 
the  king's  children.  On  the  king's  death  he  sought  and  obtained 
from  the  people  election  to  the  throne.  To  strengthen  his  position 
he  added  one  hundred  men  to  the  Senate.  He  fought  victoriously 
with  Latins  and  Sabines;  he  laid  out  the  Circus  Maximus  and  exhib- 
ited games  there;  he  began  to  wall  the  city,  to  drain  its  hollows  by 
sewers  and  to  lay  out  the  space  for  a  temple  to  Jupiter  on  the  Capito- 
line  Hill.  But  the  sons  of  Ancus  Marcius,  who  sought  revenge  for 
having  been  supplanted  by  a  foreigner,  plotted  against  the  king  and 
brought  about  his  murder.  They  failed,  however,  to  secure  the 
throne.  A  young  man,  Servius  Tullius,  a  captive  and  slave,  had 
been  favored  by  the  king  and  betrothed  to  his  daughter.  It  is  said 
that  the  king's  attention  kad  been  drawn  to  him  by  a  strange  portent; 
as  the  boy  lay  asleep  in  the  palace,  his  head  suddenly  flamed  with 
fire,  which  disappeared  when  he  awoke.  On  the  king's  murder,  be- 
fore it  was  widely  known  that  he  was  dead,  Servius  assumed  his 
duties  and  at  last  seized  the  throne  and  established  himself  firmly. 
He  was  a  wise  and  vigorous  ruler.  Under  him  the  Roman  state  was 
reorganized.  He  instituted  the  census,  or  classification  of  the  people 
in  classes  and  centuries  on  the  basis  of  property,  chiefly  for  purposes 
of  war.  The  citizens  thus  organized  numbered  80,000.  He  enlarged 
the  city  and  surrounded  it  with  a  wall  and  a  moat.  After  a  long 
reign  he  was  slain  by  Tarquinius,  the  son,  or  grandson,  of  Priscus, 
urged  on  to  the  crime  by  his  wife,  the  daughter  of  Servius,  who  was 
eager  for  royal  power.  Tarquinius,  called  Superbus,  "the  proud," 
because  of  his  haughty  and  unbending  temper,  ruled  with  energy  and 
success.  He  gained  for  Rome  greater  influence  in  the  Latin  League, 
warred  with  the  mountaineers  and  won  the  city  of  Gabii.  At  home 
he  made  many  improvements  in  the  city;  built  the  great  sewer, 


258  The  Making  of  Rome 

erected  seats  in  the  Circus  and  began  a  splendid  temple  to  Jupiter 
upon  the  area  marked  out  by  Priscus.  But  a  series  of  events  fol- 
lowed which  brought  about  his  overthrow  and  the  disappearance  of 
kings  from  Rome. 

Growth  313.  It  is  clear  that  under  these  Etruscan  kings  Rome 

Etruscan  entered  upon  a  new  career.  All  sides  of  its  inner  and 
Rule.  outer  life  received  fresh  impulse.  The  city  was  architec- 
turally improved  and  adorned.  Its  area  was  enlarged 
and  a  wall  was  thrown  around  the  whole.  Buildings 
were  erected  for  state  purposes,  a  prison  and  temples. 
A  fine  drainage  system  was  undertaken.  Etruscan 
culture  was  introduced;  Roman  youth  learned  the 
language  and  wisdom  of  Etruria.  The  Roman  power 
made  itself  felt  in  Latium.  The  headship  of  the  Latin 
League  fell  into  the  hands  of  these  kings.  The  exten- 
sion of  Etruscan  power  throughout  the  western  plain 
contributed  to  the  spread  of  commerce  and  trade.  A 
larger  share  of  these  fell  to  Rome  and  brought  increased 
wealth  and  culture  from  the  east,  as  well  as  a  greater 
population  to  take  advantage  of  the  larger  opportuni- 
ties. 

Roman  314.  Two  spheres  of  Roman  life,   affected  by  the 

Religion.  Etruscan  domination,  deserve  special  mention:  the 
religious  and  the  political  organization.  Roman  re- 
ligion was  a  very  simple  and  practical  affair,  befitting  a 
farmer-folk  without  culture.  They  believed  them- 
selves surrounded  by  spirits  who  were  active  every- 
where in  nature  and  in  their  own  affairs.  These  spirits 
dwelt  in  animals,  in  trees,  in  fountains  and  the  like. 
The  farm  life  had  its  special  divine  patrons,  worshipped 
in  rude  festivals  occurring  at  set  times,  sowing  or  har- 
vest. By  ceremonies  suitable  to  the  occasion — the 


Early  Roman  Religion  259 

procession  of  farmers  with  their  farm  animals  around 
the  fields,  or  a  rustic  feast  with  boisterous  games  and 
rough  horse-play — the  worshippers  appeased  the  higher 
powers  and  secured  their  help  in  the  growing  and  ripen- 
ing of  the  crops.  The  farmhouse  had  its  deities — Vesta, 
the  guardian  of  the  hearth,  and  Janus,  the  spirit  of  the 
doorway.  As  life  in  the  city  supplanted  agriculture, 
these  powers  took  up  their  home  there,  and  their  worship 
was  organized.  Some  spirits  became  patrons  of  private 
life,  as  the  Lares,  who  were  the  spirits  of  ancestors,  and 
the  Penates,  who  presided  over  the  provisions.  There 
was  still  much  indefiniteness  as  to  the  names  and  power 
of  the  spirits.  The  Romans  thought  more  of  what  they 
did  than  of  what  they  were  called  and  how  they  looked. 
Yet,  as  the  public  life  became  more  regular,  the  more 
important  gods  came  to  have  special  names  and  a 
suitable  worship.  So  we  have  Jupiter,  the  sky  god, 
Diana,  the  forest  goddess,  Ceres,  the  mother  of  agri- 
culture, Venus,  goddess  of  fruitfulness  and  love, 
Mars,  god  of  war,  Neptune,  of  the  sea,  Vulcan,  of  fire 
and  mechanic  arts,  Juno,  goddess  of  motherhood  and 
patron  of  families  and  clans.  The  world  of  the  dead 
was  regarded  as  beneath  the  earth  and  had  its  deity, 
Dispater.  King  Numa  stood  in  the  tradition  as  the 
prime  organizer  of  the  Roman  state-worship  of  the 
various  gods.  To  him  was  ascribed  the  appointment 
of  the  chief  body  of  priests,  called  pontifices,  at  the 
head  of  which  was  the  pontifex  maximus.  The  senti- 
ment of  law  and  order,  which  was  so  characteristic 
of  Roman  life  everywhere,  had  full  sway  here  and  led 
to  a  very  careful  arrangement  of  the  relations  between 
gods  and  men.  Though  the  Romans  were  not  on 


260  The  Making  of  Rome 

familiar  terms  with  their  gods — they  feared  rather  than 
loved  them — and  did  not  imagine  them  beautiful  beings, 
as  did  the  Greeks  (§  113),  yet  they  believed  one  thing 
firmly  and  strongly  about  them,  that  they  would  be  as 
honest  and  as  faithful  to  their  agreements  as  were  their 
worshippers.  Thus,  attention  was  directed  to  learning 
the  terms  on  which  the  gods  would  live  at  peace  with 
men  and  prosper  them;  and  having  learned  this,  hav- 
ing come  to  terms  with  the  gods,  the  Romans  faith- 
fully and  scrupulously  kept  their  part  of  the  contract 
and  expected  in  turn  that  the  gods  would  do  their  part. 
Honest  fulfilment  of  definite  obligation,  this  was  man's 
duty  toward  the  gods.  This  made  the  old  Roman 
strong  and  strenuous  in  his  daily  work  at  home  and 
abroad. 

315.  The  Etruscan  period  brought  in  new  gods  and 
new  religious  forms.  The  most  important  new  deity 
was  Minerva,  goddess  of  wisdom,  patron  of  trade 
and  commerce.  New  temples  were  built;  particularly 
the  state  temple  on  the  Capitoline,  where  Jupiter,  Juno 
and  Minerva  were  worshipped  together  and  thus  be- 
came the  chief  deities  of  the  city.  But  the  principal 
result  of  Etruscan  influence  was  to  aid  Roman  religion 
to  determine  more  clearly  the  will  of  the  gods  by  a  sys- 
tem of  omens.  An  "omen"  was  an  indication  of  what 
the  gods  wanted  or  how  they  felt;  it  could  be  a  seem- 
ingly chance  event  in  the  natural  world,  such  as  the 
actions  of  animals — a  rat  running  across  the  path,  the 
blowing  of  the  wind,  or  a  thunder-storm.  The  Etrus- 
cans were  experts  at  devising  means  to  this  end.  The 
meaning  of  such  things  had  been  studied,  and  a  system 
of  laws  discovered,  by  which  the  gods  revealed  them- 


Religio  and  Pietas  261 

selves  to  the  one  who  knew  how  to  interpret  these  signs, 
called  auspicia.  Such  a  development  of  their  religion 
was  natural  and  acceptable  to  the  Romans  and  became 
an  essential  part  of  it.  Officials,  called  Augurs  and 
Haruspices,  were  set  apart  to  study,  put  in  order  and 
practise  this  system,  to  learn  and  interpret  the  auspices. 
Thus  the  religion  became  more  and  more  rigid  and 
formal,  yet  also  more  definite  and  concrete.  Its  name 
indicates  its  character — religio — that  which  "binds" 
gods  and  men  to  keep  their  word,  to  fulfil  a  contract, 
the  terms  of  which  are  known  and  acknowledged  by 
both  parties.  The  corresponding  word  for  man's 
attitude  toward  the  gods — the  honest  doing  of  duty  as 
prescribed  in  definite  law  and  ritual — was  pietas. 

The  story  went  that  once  the  Sibyl  visited  Tarquin  the  Proud 
and  offered  to  sell  him  nine  books  by  which  the  will  of  the  gods  could 
be  interpreted.  The  price  was  high  and  the  king  refused.  She 
burned  three  of  them  and  offered  him  the  rest  for  twice  the  price. 
Again  he  refused.  She  burned  three  more  and  again  doubled  the 
price  for  the  three  that  remained.  The  king  reflected  and  finally 
paid  what  she  demanded.  These  three  Sibylline  Books  came  to  be 
most  precious  possessions  of  the  state  and  were  consulted  at  critical 
moments  in  its  history. 

316.  Roman   political   organization   underwent   im-  Etrusc 
portant  changes  in  the  Etruscan  period.     As  these  kings  fnflu^n 
were  foreign  conquerors,  they  could  deal  with  the  po-  on  Ro 
litical  arrangements  of  the  state  as  they  liked.     There 
was  need  of  change.     During  Rome's  progress  in  com- 
mercial and  political  importance,   while  the  original 
basis  of  citizenship  (§  309)  had  remained,  the  population 
of  the  city  had  greatly  altered.     Many  strangers  had 
come  to  take  part  in  trade  and  enjoy  the  advantages  of 


262  The  Making  of  Rome 

life  at  Rome.  Many  citizens,  living  away  from  the  city 
or  growing  poor,  had  been  unable  to  keep  up  their 
citizen  duties  and  had  lost  their  privileges.  All  these 
people  could  secure  protection  only  by  attaching  them- 
selves to  some  noble  "house"  or  to  the  king.  Such 
persons  were  called  "clients"  and  their  protectors 
"patrons."  They  performed  no  public  service,  neither 
The  Army  serving  in  the  army  nor  paying  taxes.  A  rearrange- 
ized^an  ment,  ascribed  to  King  Servius  Tullius  (§312),  brought 
these  people  into  the  service  of  the  community  by  mak- 
ing them  a  part  of  the  army.  This  was  done  by  sub- 
stituting for  tribal  and  blood  right  the  possession  of 
property  as  the  sole  condition  for  military  service.  An 
entire  reorganization  of  the  military  arrangements  of 
the  state  was  thus  made  necessary.  A  larger  and  more 
efficient  army  was  created,  the  strength  of  the  state  in- 
creased and  the  power  of  the  king  heightened  by  the 
devotion  of  the  people,  thus  honored  by  him.  Servius 
is  also  said  to  have  divided  the  Roman  territory  into 
four  parts  and  to  have  called  the  dwellers  in  each  part 
The  Local  a  "tribe."*  This  was  a  convenient  arrangement  for 

Tribes.  .          .  .  ...  T         , 

levying  the  army  and  raising  taxes.  In  due  time  po- 
litical changes  of  great  importance  followed  this  new 
organization. 

317-  The  traditional  account  of  the  arrangements  of  Servius,  as 

preserved  by  later  Roman  writers  and  interpreted  by  modern  scholars, 

is  as  follows.     The  very  richest  of  the  people  were  appointed  to  the 

The  Classes   cavalry  (equites  or  knights).     This  cavalry  for:e  was  divided  into 

Centuries.     eignteen  companies  called  "centuries"  or  hundreds.     The  rest  of 

the  people  made  up  the  infantry.     They  were  organized  into  six 

*  "Tribe"  used  in  this  sense  is  a  local  division,  not  one  based  on  blood- 
relationship  (§  309). 


The  Reorganization  of  Servius        263 

"classes,"  grading  down  according  to  property.  Each  class*  was 
made  up  of  a  certain  number  of  centuries.  The  first  class,  composed 
of  men  whose  wealth  was  estimated  at  one  hundred  thousand  asses,f 
had  eighty  centuries  of  fully  armed  soldiers;  the  second  class,  men 
worth  seventy -five  thousand  asses;  the  third  class,  men  worth 
fifty  thousand  asses,  and  the  fourth  class,  men  worth  twenty-five 
thousand  asses,  had  each  twenty  centuries  and  were  armed  in  less 
complete  fashion ;  the  fifth  class,  men  worth  eleven  thousand  asses, 
in  thirty  centuries,  were  slingers;  the  sixth  class,  made  up  of  all 
worth  less  than  this  sum,  formed  one  century.  Two  other  centuries 
were  made  up  of  artificers  and  trumpeters.  The  cavalry  and  the 
men  of  military  age  in  the  first  five  classes  constituted  the  army  in 
the  field.  The  infantry  was  drawn  up  in  two  bodies,  each  called  a 
Legio  (legion).  These  were  made  up  of  men  of  the  first  three 
classes;  the  fourth  and  fifth  classes  supplied  the  auxiliary  troops. 
The  legion  was  drawn  up  six  men  deep  with  a  front  of  500  men,  with 
its  auxiliaries,  therefore,  it  numbered  4,200.  Two  other  legions,  held 
at  home  to  protect  the  city  and  made  up  of  men  past  military  age, 
raised  the  total  military  force  of  Rome  to  18,600  men. 

318.  It  seemed  as  though  the  influence  of  the  Etrus-  The  Roman 
can  kings  among  the  people  and  their  pre-eminence  in  Reactlon- 
Latium  would  secure  to  them  a  long  and  firm  hold  upon 
Rome.    But  it  did  not  so  turn  out.     The  noble  families 
grew  stronger;  the  sentiment  of  nationality  opposed  the 
rule   of  strangers ;  at   last   the   Etruscan   rulers   were  Fail  of 
driven  out;  with  them  went  the  kingship  itself.     The  KngS8can 
process  was,  no  doubt,  much  the  same  as   in  Greece  and  End  of 
(§  1 06).     Remains  of  the  kingly  dignity  survived  only  Kingship, 
in  the  religious  sphere.     The  rex  sacrorum,  "king  of 

*  The  term  "  class  "  here  has  the  meaning  of  "  calling  out,"  *'. «., 
"  Levy." 

t  The  as,  of  bronze,  was  the  unit  of  value  in  Roman  currency.  In  the 
time  of  Servius  the  property  was  in  land;  the  estimate  in  money  value  is 
the  work  of  a  later  time.  Compare  the  similar  organization  of  Solon 
(§  137) 


264  The  Making  of  Rome 

sacred  things,"  became  the  highest  priestly  representa- 
tive of  the  state  in  certain  solemn  religious  exercises, 
and  the  Regia,  "royal  palace,"  was  turned  into  a  holy 
place  where  priests  dwelt  and  sacrifices  were  performed. 
The  aristocracy  took  control  of  affairs  and  Rome  be- 
came an  aristocratic  state.  The  date  traditionally 
set  for  this  change  was  509  B.C.  The  transformations 
brought  about  in  connection  with  it,  both  in  the  life  of 
Rome  and  in  its  relations  to  Italy,  are  so  important  as 
to  make  it  a  turning-point  in  Roman  history,  the  be- 
ginning of  a  new  period. 

Legend  3J9-  The  Roman  legends  describe  the  growing  arrogance  of  Tar- 

of  the  qujn  tne  prou(j  and  his  family,  under  which  the  Romans  were  im- 

patient but  submissive.  Finally  a  gross  act  of  violence  was  inflicted 
by  Tarquin's  son  upon  Lucretia,  wife  of  the  noble  Collatinus;  un- 
der the  shame  of  it  she  killed  herself  in  the  presence  of  her  husband 
and  his  friends.  The  king  was  at  the  time  absent  from  the  city, 
waging  war.  They  raised  a  rebellion;  the  gates  of  the  city  were 
closed  against  him,  and  the  kingship  was  formally  abolished  by  the 
citizens. 

OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 
III.    THE   EMPIRE  OF  ROME 

I.  THE  MAKING  OF  ROME.  The  three  factors:  (i)  Geographical  posi- 
tion— river,  ford,  fortress;  (2)  Union  of  peoples — result — organiza- 
tion in  fact  and  in  legend;  (3)  Italy  makes  Rome:  Latin  league — 
Etruscan  civilization — Greek  influence — Etruscan  rule  in  Rome, 
the  tradition — Etruscan  influence — Roman  religion  and  Etruscan 
religion,  political  reorganization,  the  army — reaction  of  Romans, 
and  driving  out  of  Etruscans,  end  of  kingship. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  How  did  the  Tiber  and  the  Pala- 
tine affect  the  early  history  of  Rome?  2.  What  is  meant 
by  gens,  patrician,  plebeian,  omen,  religio,  pietas,  equites? 
3.  What  was  the  traditional  date  of  the  founding  of  Rome? 
of  the  expulsion  of  the  Kings? 


Problems  of  the  New  State  265 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  In  what  was  the  early  organization 
of  Rome  (§  309)  like  and  unlike  that  of  the  Greek  communi- 
ties of  the  Middle  Age  (§§  105-107)?  2.  Compare  the  origin 
of  Rome  with  that  of  Athens  (§  108).  3.  Compare  the  geog- 
raphy of  Greece  and  Italy  and  show  how  differently  the  his- 
tory of  each  land  was  thus  affected.  4.  Compare  the  reforms 
of  Servius  with  those  of  Solon  (§  137). 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  Sources 
and  Trustworthiness  of  Early  Roman  History.  Munro,  pp. 
3-5;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  54-60;  How  and  Leigh,  pp.  34-37; 
Myres,  pp.  38-41;  Seignobos,  pp.  33-35;  West,  pp.  256-258. 

2.  Stories  of  the  Kings  from  Romulus  to  Ancus.    Plutarch, 
Romulus  and  Numa;  Munro,  pp.  66-68;  Seignobos,  pp.  15-20. 

3.  Stories   of   the    Etruscan    Kings.    Seignobos,  pp.   21,  27. 

4.  The  Reforms  of  Servius  in  Some  Detail,  with  a  Diagram. 
Munro,  pp.  45-47;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  43-49;  Myres,  pp.  56-63; 
How  and  Leigh,  p.  28;  Abbott,  pp.  20,  21;    Botsford,  Ancient 
History,   p.  299.     5.  The  Curise  and  the  Comitia  Curiata. 
Abbott,  pp.  18-20. 


2.— ROME'S    WESTERN    EMPIRE 

500-200  B.C. 

PRELIMINARY    SURVEY 

320.  The  aristocracy  to  whom  the  leadership  of  the  The  Double 
state  now  fell  had  a  twofold  task  imposed  upon  them.  ft*\°l 
They  had  (i)  to  defend  the  community    against  its  oovern- 
enemies  without  and  (2)  to  maintain  themselves  within 
the  state  against  both  those  who  might  threaten  their 
supremacy  and  those  who  sought  a  larger  share  in  the 
social  and  political  life.     These  two  problems  were 
bound  up  together.    For  no  sooner  was  success  achieved 
in  war  against  enemies  than  danger  threatened  from 
the  ambition  of  the  officials,  under  whom  it  had  been 


266  Rome's  Western  Empire 

gained,  and  from  the  mass  of  the  people,  who  had 
fought  for  their  country  in  the  victorious  army.  If  we 
take  the  outward  progress  of  Rome  as  our  guiding  clew, 
three  periods  in  this  struggle  may  be  fixed. 

(i)  Rome's       32!.     Etruscans  on  the  north,  mountain  tribes  from 
the  east,  Latins  on  the  south,  threatened  the  existence  of 


Neighbors:  the  state.  By  hard  fighting,  skilful  diplomacy  and  wise 
390  B.C.  compromise,  the  Romans  were  able  to  beat  off  all  these 
enemies,  reducing  some  to  subjection  and  forming  alli- 
ances with  others,  until  at  the  close  of  the  period  a  de- 
fensible frontier  had  been  established,  extending  from 
the  middle  of  Etruria  in  the  north  to  the  southern  bor- 
der of  Latium,  eastward  to  the  Apennines  and  westward 
to  the  sea.  This  brilliant  success  had  been  accompanied 
by  changes  in  the  inner  life  of  the  state.  The  officials 
had  been  reduced  in  their  powers,  but  the  plebeians 
had  gained  in  position.  The  aristocracy  had  been 
forced  to  publish  the  laws  in  twelve  tables,  to  admit 
the  plebeians  to  a  minor  part  in  the  government  and 
to  give  them  an  official  called  the  Tribune  to  represent 
and  defend  them. 

(a)  The  322.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  the  very 

Italy  under    existence  of  the  state  was  threatened  by  a  tremendous 

Rome:         incursion  of  the  Kelts  (Gauls)  from  the  far  north.     All 

365  B.C.       Etruria  and  Latium  were  overrun,  the  mountain  tribes 

pushed  southward,  and  Rome  itself  was  captured  and 

burned.    But  the  Romans  remained  indomitable,  rallied 

their  forces,  hurled  the  invaders  back  into  the  valley 

of  the  Po  and  held  them  there.      Then  they  turned 

against   the   restless   and   warlike   mountaineers,   who 

in  the  south  were  pushing  over  into  the  western  plain. 

They  advanced  against  the    Samnites    and  overthrew 


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rroviucial  government  oi{ 
the  two  Spains,  Sicily  and 
Senate  has  special  seats  in 
Via  Flaminia;  Via  Aemilia 
Cato,  Censor. 
Aquileia,  last  latin  colony 
Law  fixes  age  for  holding  i 

End  of  direct  taxaflon  at  K 

Courts  for  trials  of  goverm 
Death  ol  Cato. 

Tiberius  Gracchus  tribune 

Gaius  Gracchus  tribune. 
Province  of  Gallia  Narbont 
Marius  tribune. 

Tflarius  consul.'  » 
Birlh  of  Cicero  and  Tompe 

Birth  of  Julius  Caesar. 
Legislation  of  Drusus. 
Lex  Julia  granting  citizen! 
Lex  Plautla  Papiria  grant! 
Sulla  occupies  Rome.  8 
Sulla  returns  from  the  Eas 
Sulla  appointed  dictator. 
Sulla  resigns  dictatorship. 

Uabillian  Law. 
Maiiilian  Law. 
63  Consulship  of  Cicero. 
Pompey  returns  to  Rome. 
First  Triumvirate. 
Caesar  consul. 
Caesariprocousulship  in  G 

Caesar  invades  Italy. 
Battle  of  Pharsalus. 
Battle  of  Thapsus.  45 
Caesar  assassinated. 
Second  Triumvirate.  Dei 
Battle  of  Philippi 

2     SSS«§ 

s 

3              S 

SH5      SI 

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Preliminary  Survey  267 

them  in  the  mountains.  Brought  thus  into  hostile  re- 
lations with  the  cities  of  Greater  Greece  (§  114),  they 
contended  with  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus  (§  283),  drove  him 
out  of  Italy  and  extended  their  authority  to  the  Adri- 
atic. They  strengthened  their  position  against  revolt 
in  Latium  and  the  mountain-region,  until,  at  last,  they 
found  themselves  at  the  head  of  all  the  Italian  states, 
which  were  bound  to  them  by  strong  ties  of  a  common 
citizenship  or  liberal  alliances.  Accompanying  this 
outward  progress,  there  went  on,  within  the  state,  the 
steady  growth  of  the  plebeians  in  their  position  and 
power.  All  the  offices  of  the  state  were  thrown  open 
to  them.  The  assembly  of  the  whole  people,  organized 
by  tribes,  became  the  chief  legislative  power.  The 
citizenship  was  extended  to  other  communities;  the 
supremacy  of  the  aristocracy,  even  in  the  senate,  was 
broken  by  the  admission  of  wealthy  plebeians. 

323.  Carthage  was  the  leading  commercial  state  of  (3)  The 
the  West.     Rome's  union  of  Italy  made  complications 
with  her  inevitable,  since  Carthage  sought  to  control 


....  i    T-»  11         the  Western 

all  commercial  activity  and  Rome  was  bound  to  de-  Mediterra- 

fend  and  sustain  the  commerce  of  Italy.     War  broke  nean:  from 

265-400 

out  on  the  neutral  ground  of  Sicily  and  continued  for  B.C. 
half  a  century.  The  culmination  was  the  invasion  of 
Italy  by  the  Carthaginian  general,  Hannibal;  Rome 
fought  desperately  for  her  life.  But  the  Italian  states 
remained  faithful  to  her,  Hannibal  retired  and  Carthage 
was  at  last  overthrown.  Rome  took  the  leadership 
in  the  western  Mediterranean.  Her  authority  extended 
over  north  Africa,  Spain,  Sicily  and  all  Italy,  even  to  the 
Alps.  In  this  time  of  stress  the  public  assembly  of  the 
citizens  was  too  large  and  unwieldy  to  conduct  affairs; 


268  Rome's  Defence 

therefore,  the  senate  led  the  state,  taking  measures  for 
the  war,  raising  money,  appointing  leaders  and  sustain- 
ing courage  and  activity.  Thus,  at  the  close  of  the 
period,  it  was  the  chief  executive  power;  the  citizens, 
though  rulers  in  theory,  in  fact  submitted  to  senatorial 
direction.  When  this  period  of  three  centuries  (500-200 
B.C.)  closes,  therefore,  Rome  has  grown  from  a  city  to 
an  imperial  state,  ruling  the  western  Mediterranean. 
She  is  transformed  from  an  aristocratic  community 
into  a  democracy  in  which,  however,  the  actual  power 
was  in  the  hands  of  a  corporation  of  men  of  wealth  and 
blood  gathered  in  the  senate.  We  may  now  study  the 
history  of  these  three  epochs  in  detail. 


(i)     ROME'S   DEFENCE  AGAINST  HER 
NEIGHBORS 

500-390  B.C. 

The  New  324.  The  growing  power  of  the  noble  nouses  had 
men"11"  resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  the  kingship.  Into  the 
place  of  the  monarchy  stepped  the  aristocracy,  to 
whom  fell  the  organization  and  conduct  of  the  state. 
They  occupied  the  offices,  made  and  administered  the 
officials.  laws  and  determined  the  policy.  Two  officials,  called 
consuls,  or  prators,  were  appointed  for  the  adminis- 
tration. In  taking  office  they  were  given  the  imperium, 
which  was  equivalent  to  the  possession  of  kingly  pow- 
ers; they  led  the  armies,  pronounced  judgment  and 
performed  the  chief  public  religious  services.  But 
the  aristocracy  had  no  idea  of  substituting  new  kings 


Latin  League  Revived  269 

for  the  old.  The  powers  of  the  consuls  were  carefully 
limited.  They  were  elected  for  one  year  only;  they 
must  be  aristocrats;  their  powers  were  equal  and  hence 
each  could  nullify  the  acts  of  the  other.  An  important 
change  took  place  in  the  citizen  body.  The  army,  as  citizens, 
reorganized  in  centuries  by  Servius  (§  317),  had  been 
the  efficient  instrument  of  the  aristocracy  in  accom- 
plishing the  revolution;  it  was  now  more  than  ever 
necessary  in  maintaining  the  state.  Very  naturally, 
therefore,  it  was  the  most  important  body  of  the  people; 
'  all  its  members  became  citizens  and  were  organized  as 
a  new  assembly  for  the  election  of  consuls  and  the 
making  of  laws.  It  was  called  the  Comitia  Centu- 
riata  and  soon  put  the  old  curiate  assembly  (§  309) 
in  the  shade.  The  latter  continued  to  meet,  but  was 
insignificant.  The  senate  was  the  real  power  in  the  senate, 
new  state.  It  was  composed  entirely  of  aristocrats. 
It  practically  dictated  the  election  of  consuls,  deter- 
mined their  policy  and  indicated  what  laws  should  be 
passed  by  the  people. 

325.  The  dangers  that  confronted  the  new  govern-  Difficulties 
ment  were  sufficiently  alarming.     With  the  passing  of  J2Jhbori 
the  monarchy,  the  Latin  cities  rejected  the  leadership 
of  Rome;  indeed,  it  is  probable  that  they  also  put  off  with  the 
Etruscan  domination  and  set  up  for  themselves  in  the  Latin8' 
same  fashion  as  did  Rome.     The  rivalry  thus  created 
might  have  proved  disastrous,  had  not  a  new  danger 
driven  them  back  to  the  old  alliance.     This  was  the 
invasion  of  the  mountain  tribes,  long  held  in  leash  by 
the   strong   Etruscan  power  in   Latium.     The  Latin 
League  was  said  to  have  been  re-established  by  Spurius 
Cassius  in  493  B.C.     Thereupon,  Rome  led  the  plains- 


270 


Rome's  Defence 


with  the      men  out  against  the  invading  mountaineers.     From 

Mounta   -    ^g   eas^   t:ne   Sabincs   and   Hernici   were    advancing, 

from  the  south  the  yEqui  and  Volsci.     But  the  Hernici 

were  secured  as  allies,  and  thus  the  eastern  and  southern 


invaders  separated.  Yet  the  conflict  was  long  and  try- 
ing. From  time  to  time  the  hillsmen  swept  down  to 
the  very  gates  of  Rome,  raiding  and  burning  the  fields 
and  homesteads. 

with  the          326.  An   even   fiercer  struggle   was    forced   by   the 
Etruscans.    EtruscanS)  wno  Would  not  willingly  yield  up  their  hold 


The  Etruscan  Wars  271 

on  Rome  and  Latium.  The  centre  of  the  war  was  the 
strong  city  of  Veil,  the  rival  of  Rome,  situated  a  few 
miles  to  the  north.  The  trade  of  Rome  with  the  upper 
Tiber  country  was  cut  off  and  the  superior  military 
ability  of  the  Etruscans  was  emphasized  in  severe  de- 
feats inflicted  upon  the  Roman  army.  Still  the  Romans 
gradually  got  the  better  of  their  antagonist,  owing  not 
more  to  their  own  valor  than  to  the  general  decline  of 
the  Etruscan  power,  which  was  being  attacked  on  all 
sides.  The  Greeks  were  cutting  off  the  commerce  of 
the  Etruscans;  an  enemy  in  the  north,  the  Kelts  (Gauls), 
was  pushing  down  upon  them;  it  had  driven  them  out 
of  the  Po  valley  and  compelled  them  to  stand  on  the 
defensive.  In  this  situation  they  could  not  concentrate 
their  waning  strength  on  Rome.  At  last,  Veii  itself  capture  of 
fell  before  a  Roman  assault  (396  B.C.)  The  Romans  Veu' 
advanced  into  the  heart  of  Etruria  and  took  possession 
of  the  southern  half  of  the  land. 

327.  Many  stories  of  heroic  exploits  were  told  about  The 
these  early  wars  of  Rome  with  its  neighbors :  of'the^ 

When  the  gates  of  the  city  had  been  shut  against  him,  Tarquin  the   Stru*gles- 
Proud  immediately  set  about  recovering  his  power.     At  first  a  plot    i.  The 
was  formed  within  Rome  among  the  noble  youth  who  felt  that  they   Etruscan 
were  under  restraint  in  the  new  conditions.     But  just  as  they  were 
about  to  spring  their  trap,  they  were  betrayed  by  a  slave  who  over- 
heard their  treasonable  communings.     Even  though  the  sons  of  the 
consul,  they  were  not  saved  from  summary  execution  inflicted  under 
their  father's  direction.     Whereupon  Tarquin,  having  solicited  aid 
from  the  cities  of  Etruria,  came  against  Rome  with  an  army  from 
Veii  and  Tarquinii.     In  the  battle,  Brutus,  the  consul,  and  Aruns, 
Tarquin's  son,  found  death  in  single  combat.     Help  was  then  sought 
by  Tarquin  from  Lars  Porsena,  king  of  the  powerful  city  of  Clu- 
sium,  who  led  down  from  the  north  a  mighty  host  against  Rome.   Porsena. 
He  would  have  forced  a  passage  over  the  Sublician  bridge  had  not  a 


272  Rome's  Defence 

brave  warrior,  Horatius  Codes,  supported  by  two  companions,  held 
the  entrance  against  the  enemy,  never  retiring  until  the  Romans  cut 
down  the  bridge  behind  him;  then  plunging  into  the  Tiber  he  swam 
safely  back  to  his  friends.  Porsena  brought  the  city  low  by  a  block- 
ade; he  was  persuaded  to  give  up  his  hostile  endeavors  only  through 
the  heroic  act  of  Mucius,  who,  in  disguise,  entered  the  Etruscan 
camp  in  order  to  kill  the  king.  By  a  mistake  he  killed  the  king's  sec- 
retary and,  when  arrested  and  brought  before  Porsena,  he  declared 
that  there  were  300  other  Roman  youth,  like  himself,  sworn  to  kill 
the  king.  In  proof  of  his  determination,  he  thrust  his  right  hand  into 
the  fire  that  was  lighted  for  the  sacrifice.  Hence  he  was  afterward 
called  Scaevola,  "the  left-handed."  Porsena,  moved  with  admira- 
tion and  fear,  dismissed  the  youth  unharmed.  Soon  he  made  peace 
and  retired. 

But  the  people  of  Veii  continued  to  war  with  Rome,  harassing 
them  with  frequent  raids.     On  one  occasion,  the  noble  family  of  the 
The  Fabii  offered  to  proceed  against  them  and  conduct  the  war.     So 

Fabii.  ^nev  marcne(j  OU{  ^06  strong  amid  the  prayers  and  praises  of  the 

people.  Arrived  at  a  strong  place  at  the  river  Cremera,  they  forti- 
fied it,  and  for  a  time  fought  the  Veientes  with  great  success.  But, 
at  last,  growing  confident  and  careless,  they  were  ambushed  by  the 
enemy  and  cut  off.  Only  one  of  them,  and  he  a  child,  was  left  to 
represent  his  family.  A  few  years  after,  peace  for  forty  years  was 
declared  between  the  two  states.  Then  the  war  broke  out  again 
with  the  going  over  of  Fidenae,  a  Roman  colony,  to  Veii.  In  the 
battle  that  followed,  Aulus  Cornelius  Cossus  slew,  with  his  own 
hand,  Tolumnius,  king  of  Veii,  and  hung  up  the  royal  spoils  beside 
those  dedicated  by  Romulus  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Feretrius. 
Not  long  after,  Fidenae  was  taken  by  storm.  But  the  war  continued 
with  varying  success,  until  the  other  Etruscan  cities  decided  to  give 
Siege  of  no  more  help  to  Veii.  Then  the  Romans  resolved  to  lay  siege  to  the 
Veii<  city.  For  ten  years  their  armies  lay  before  it,  but  the  city  was  de- 

fended with  vigor.  In  despair  the  Romans  sought  an  oracle  from 
Delphi  (§  118),  and  were  told  that  victory  depended  on  letting  out  the 
waters  of  the  Alban  lake.  When  this  was  done,  Marcus  Furius 
Camillus,  the  dictator,  solemnly  invited  Juno,  the  goddess  of  Veii, 
to  abandon  the  doomed  city  and  come  to  Rome;  then  the  assault 
was  made  and  Veii  fell. 


Legends  of  These  Wars  273 

News  came  to  the  Romans  that  thirty  Latin  cities  had  entered   2.  The 
into  alliance  against  them  under  the  leadership  of  Octavius  Mam-   Latin 
ilius.     It  was  said  that  Tarquin  the  Proud,  now  an  old  man,  had  in- 
stigated this  movement  and  was  present  in  the  hostile  army.    So  great 
was  the  terror  of  the  Romans,  that  now,  perhaps  for  the  first  time, 
they  appointed  a  Dictator  who  superseded  the  consuls  in  carrying  on 
the  war.    The  armies  met  at  Lake  Regillus,  and  the  battle  was  long  Battle  of 
and  fierce.     The  supporters  of  Tarquin  charged  with  great  fury.    In   Lake 
the  thick  of  the  fight,  twin  heroes,  mounted  on  white  horses,  were 
seen  leading  on  the  Romans.     Under  their  inspiration  the  leader  of 
the  enemy  was  slain  and  his  army  routed.     Strange  to  say,  immedi- 
ately after  the  battle,  the  heroes  disappeared  and  were  seen   at 
Rome  with  foaming  horses,  bearing  the  news  of  the  victory.     They 
were  soon  recognized  as  the  twin  gods,  Castor  and  Pollux,  and  a 
temple  was  built  in  their  honor  by  the  fountain  in  Rome  where  they 
appeared.    Soon  after,  the  Latins  made  peace  and  entered  into  a 
league  with  the  Romans. 

In  one  of  the  many  wars  with  the  mountain  tribes  the  Roman   3.  Wars 
army  had  been  surrounded  by  the  ^Equi  and  was  in  danger  of  de-   w'th  the 
struction.     News  was  brought  to  Rome.     Hope  was  found  only  in 
the  appointment,  as  Dictator,  of  the  first  citizen  of  the  state,  Lucius 
Quintus  Cincinnatus.     The  messengers  found  him  at  work  culti-   cincin- 
vating  his  little  farm  of  four  acres  across  the  Tiber.     He  wiped  the   natus- 
sweat  and  dust  from  his  face  and,  just  as  he  was,  received  the  con- 
gratulations of  the  messengers  and  their  announcement  of  his  ap- 
pointment.    The  desperate  situation  was  explained ;  he  came  into 
the  city,  raised  an  army,  defeated  the  enemy  and  delivered   his 
countrymen.     Sixteen  days  from  the  time  of  receiving  his  appoint- 
ment he  gave  it  up  and  returned  to  his  farm. 

Caius  Marcius,  surnamed  Coriolanus,  from  his  valor  at  the  Coriolanus 
capture  of  the  city  of  Corioli,  incurred  the  hatred  of  the  plebeians 
by  his  arrogant  behavior  and  was  condemned.  He  retired  to  the 
Volsci,  and,  being  kindly  received  by  them,  became  their  leader. 
Led  by  him  the  Volsci  brought  the  Romans  to  the  brink  of  ruin. 
He  took  his  stand  a  short  distance  from  the  city  and  devastated  the 
country  far  and  wide.  All  overtures  for  peace  were  rejected  by  the 
general,  until  his  mother  and  wife,  leading  his  children,  came  to  him. 
As  he  rose  to  embrace  his  mother,  she  reproached  him  with  his 


274  Rome's  Defence 

treachery  to  his  native  land,  saying,  "Before  I  receive  your  embrace, 
let  me  know  whether  I  have  come  to  an  enemy  or  to  a  son."  These 
words  and  the  lamentations  of  the  women  overcame  his  resolution. 
He  withdrew  his  army  and  Rome  was  saved. 

Division  of        328.  During  these  troubled  years,  to  hold  its  course 
among8 New  successfully  between  the  ambitions  of  individual  nobles 
officials.       anc[  the  demands  of  the  aggressive  plebeians,  was   no 
easy  task  for  the  aristocratic  government.     The  account 
of  the  events,  which  was  handed  down  from  these  early 
times,  has  sadly  mixed  up  the  activities  of  the  patricians 
in  both  these  directions.     But  it  is  clear    that    they 
weakened  the  power  of  the   consuls  by   distributing  it 
among  other  officials.     The  most  important    of   these 
Censors.       officials  were  the  two  censors,  whose  duty  it  was  to  keep 
a  roll  of  the  citizens,  to  decide  as  to  the  political  status 
of  each  citizen  and  to  determine  the  taxes  each  should  pay. 
They  supervised  public  and  private  morals;  indeed,  the 
censorship  was  a  kind  of  national  conscience,  deciding  as 
to  what  was  good  or  bad  citizenship  and  punishing  breaches 
Quaestors,     of  good  order.     Two  quastors  were  appointed  to  have 
charge  of  the  public  treasury;  they  received  and  paid  out 
money  on  the  order  of  the  senate.     Other  quaestors  had 
similar  duties  with  respect  to  the  military  chest.     Thus 
two  important  prerogatives  were  lost  to  the  consuls.     At 
the  same  time,  whenever  anyone  seemed  likely  to  be  rising 
too  high  in  the  state  and  aiming  at  supreme  power,  the 
Overthrow    government  made  away  with  him.     We  are  told  of  the 
t?ousmbl~      ambitions  and  the  fall  of  Spurius  Cassius,  of  Coriolanus, 
Leaders.       of  Appius  Herdonius  and  Appius  Claudius  and  of  Spu- 
rius  Maelius.     As   the   story   goes,  the   consul   Spurius 
Cassius,  who  had  deserved  well  of  the  Roman  people  by 
bringing  the  Latins  back  into  union  with  Rome,  devised 


The  Demands  of  Plebeians  275 

a  scheme  for  dividing  certain  conquered  lands  equally 
among  the  Romans  and  the  Latins.  This  excited  grave 
disturbances  within  the  state,  and  the  patricians  tried  to 
stir  up  the  people  against  him.  He,  in  his  turn,  sought  to 
gain  them  to  his  side  by  refunding  to  them  certain  moneys 
which  rightfully  belonged  to  them.  But  they  suspected 
him  of  aiming  at  royal  power  and  refused  the  bribe.  As 
soon  as  he  went  out  of  office,  he  was  condemned  and  put 
to  death. 

329.  It  seemed  as  if  the  government  had  nothing  to  fear  Growing 
from  the  plebeians,  since  all  powers  were  in  the  hands  of  J^^g 
the  patricians.     But  the  plebeians  could  not  fail  to  have 
their  part  in  Rome's  new  wealth  and  importance.     Some 
of  them  grew  rich,  and  all  were  necessary  in  the  wars  which 
the  state  was  waging.     Indeed,  they  found  themselves 
suffering  most  from  the  hardships  which  the  wars  brought 
with  them.     The  raids  of  the  mountaineers  bore  hard  on 
the   poorer  farmers  who  could  not  care  for  their  fields 
while  fighting  in  the  armies.     The  chains  of  debt  and 
slavery  hung  the  more  heavily  about  them  and  their  fami- 
lies.    The  patricians  had  no  mercy  upon  them.     The 
aristocratic  government  administered  the  law  with  merci- 
less severity  to  suit  the  privileged  class.     When  this  yoke 
became  unendurable,  the  plebeians  rose  in  rebellion.     But  Rebellion, 
even  then  the  patricians  made  only  such  concessions  as 
weakened  the  powers  of  the  magistrates  and  did  not  di- 
rectly threaten  the  aristocratic  ascendency.     Thus  the 
right  of  appeal  to  the  popular  assembly  from  the  judgment  Right  of 
of  a  consul  in  a  death-sentence  was  early  granted   and  AppeaL 
beccme  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  civic  freedom.     Another 
outburst  secured  the  appointment  of  a  set  of  officials  repre- 
senting the  plebeians  in  opposition  to  the  regular  magis- 


276 


Rome's  Defence 


Tribunes 
Appointed. 


Plebeian 
Assembly. 


The 

Decemvirs 
and  the 
Law  of  the 
XII  Tables. 


trates.  These  were  the  Tribunes.  They  were  chosen  by 
the  plebeians  themselves.  At  first  two,  their  number 
was  afterward  increased  to  ten.  They  had  no  part  in  the 
government,  but  could  only  interfere  with  the  action  of 
magistrates  in  the  interests  of  their  plebeian  brethren. 
Thus,  if  a  plebeian  was  to  be  imprisoned  for  debt  or  was 
drafted  for  the  army  by  order  of  the  consul,  the  tribune 
could  step  in  and  release  him.  The  person  of  the  tribune 
was  sacred  and  to  do  him  injury  was  punishable  with 
death.  He  could  assemble  the  plebeians  for  the  purpose  of 
talking  over  their  affairs ;  in  this  assembly  *  the  plebeians 
made  their  importance  in  the  state  felt  in  various  ways. 

330.  But  it  was  soon  seen  that  to  allow  the  tribune  to 
block  the  regular  magistrates  in  this  way  was  to  create  all 
sorts  of  disturbance  in  the  state.  What  the  plebeians 
really  needed  was  to  have  the  laws,  by  which  the  consuls 
passed  judgment,  known  to  all,  and  not  the  private  property 
of  the  aristocrats  only.  This  was  agreed  to.  A  commis- 
sion of  ten  men,  the  Decemviri,  was  appointed  to  draw 
up  a  code  which  was  later  known  as  the  Law  of  the  Twelve 
Tables  and  became  the  foundation  of  the  Roman  legal 
system.  The  procedure  was  the  same  as  that  of  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  Lawgivers  in  Greece  (§  126)  and  was 
probably  copied  from  that.  The  old  magistracy,  the 
consuls  and  even  the  tribunes,  ceased  to  be ;  the  decemviri 
were  given  the  entire  direction  of  the  state.  They  were 
to  be  elected  yearly.  But  after  two  years  the  experiment 
did  not  succeed  and  the  old  administrative  officers  with 
the  tribunes  returned.  Yet  the  laws  had  been  published, 
and  that  was  a  great  gain  for  the  plebeians.  In  connec- 


*  This  assembly  was  called  the  Concilium  Plebis,  i.e., 
of  the  Plebeians." 


the  Council 


The  New  Assembly  277 

tion  with  the  return  to  the  old  order,  they  reaped  other 
important  benefits.      Their  assembly  became,  after  no 
long  time,  a  legal  body,  having  a  right  to  make  laws;  the 
whole    people    was    organized    into    local    tribes,  some 
twenty  in  number,  and  was  gathered  into  it ;  it  was  called 
the  Comitia  Tribute.     In  each  tribe  every  man's  vote,  The 
whether  patrician  or  plebeian,  was  equal  to  every  other, 
and  the  majority  of  votes  determined  the  vote  of  the  tribe. 
The  tribune  became  a  regular  magistrate,  able  to  recom-  The  New 
mend  legislation  to  the  people;  his  power  of  veto  was  ex- 
tended and  regulated.    A  little  later  the  right  of  inter-  inter- 
marriage (connubium)  between  plebeians  and  patricians  mamage> 
was  secured.     Nothing  now  seemed  to  stand  in  the  way 
of  the  plebeians  obtaining  entrance  to  the  highest  offices 
in  the  state. 

Some  of  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  are  as  follows : 

One  who  has  confessed  a  debt  or  against  whom  judgment  has 
been  pronounced,  shall  have  thirty  days  in  which  to  pay  it. 

Unless  he  pays  the  amount  of  the  judgment,  or  someone  in  the 
presence  of  the  magistrate  interferes  in  his  behalf  (as  vindex),  the 
creditor  is  to  take  him  home  and  fasten  him  in  stocks  or  fetters.  He 
is  to  fasten  him  with  no  less  than  fifteen  pounds  weight,  or  if  he 
choose,  with  more. 

If  a  father  sells  his  son  three  times,  the  son  shall  be  free  from  the 
power  of  the  father. 

Whenever  a  contract  or  conveyance  is  made,  as  it  is  specified  by 
word  of  mouth,  so  let  it  be  binding. 

(The  owner  of  the  land)  must  take  care  of  the  road.  If  he  does 
not  pave  it,  (the  one  having  the  right  of  way)  may  drive  his  team 
where  he  pleases. 

If  a  man  maims  a  limb  (of  another),  unless  some  agreement  is 
arrived  at,  he  shall  be  subject  to  retaliation  (i.e.,  his  limb  shall  be 
broken). 

If  a  patron  defrauds  his  client,  let  him  be  accursed. 


278  Rome's  Defence 

Women  shall  not  scratch  their  cheeks  or  inflict  any  wound  (on 
themselves)  on  account  of  a  funeral  (i.e.,  not  show  excessive  grief). 

The  Tra          331.  The  later  Roman  traditional  story  has  arranged 

Series  of       this  struggle  of  the  aristocracy  with  their  opponents  in  the 

Laws.          state  in  a  series  of  legal  enactments  secured  at  specific 

times  under  known  magistrates.     While,  probably,  the 

progress  was  in  reality  much  more  irregular  and  uncertain, 

this  arrangement  is  convenient  and  instructive.     It  is  as 

follows : 

509  B.C.  The  right  of  Appeal  was  carried  through  the  comitia 
centuriata  by  Valerius  Poplicola. 

493  B.C.  The  Secession  of  the  plebeians  and  the  appointment  of 
tribunes. 

471  B.C.  The  Publilian  law  (of  Publilius  Volero)  gave  the 
assembly  of  the  plebeians  a  legal  status  and  the  tribune  the  right  to 
propose  resolutions  for  adoption  there. 

451  B.C.    The  Decemvirs  were  appointed. 

449  B.C.  The  Valeric -Horatian  laws  gave  the  comitia  tributa 
power  to  enact  legislation  binding  on  all  the  people. 

445  B.C.    The  Canuleian  law  permitted  intermarriage. 

444  B.C.  Consular  tribunes,  who  may  be  elected  from  plebeians 
as  well  as  from  patricians,  substituted  for  consuls  elected  from 
patricians  only.  This  arrangement  was  only  for  a  short  time. 

OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 
III.     THE   EMPIRE   OF   ROME 

1.  The  Making  of  Rome. 

2.  ROME'S  WESTERN  EMPIRE.     Preliminary  Survey:  (task  of  the  aristo- 

cratic government.  Three  periods  of  the  history),  (i)  Rome's 
defence — date — character  of  the  new  government  (officials,  powers, 
citizens,  assembly,  senate) — wars  with  mountaineers  and  Etrus- 
cans, history  and  legend — problem  of  the  officials,  division  of 
powers,  ambitious  leaders — problem  of  the  plebeians,  rebellion, 
tribunes,  assembly,  decemvirs — laws  of  XII  tables — the  legal  tra- 
dition of  all  this. 


The  Keltic  Invasion  279 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  The  three  divisions  of  the  new  period 
with  dates.  2.  What  is  meant  by  imperium,  century,  con- 
nubium,  right  of  appeal?  3.  State  briefly  the  position  and 
power  of  the  censor,  the  quaestor.  4.  Distinguish  between 
the  two  periods  in  the  history  of  the  tribune.  5.  What  was 
the  traditional  date  of  the  Decemvirate? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  the  laws  of  the  twelve 
tables  here  given  with  those  of  the  code  of  Hammurabi  (§  37). 
2.  Compare  the  Decemvirate  with  the  Greek  Lawgivers  (§§  125- 
126)  in  origin,  purpose  and  results  of  work. 

TOPICS   FOR   READING  AND  ORAL   REPORT.     1.  The  New 

Aristocratic  Republic:  General  View  of  its  Constitutional  His- 
tory to  390  B.C.  Shuckburgh,  ch.  8;  West,  pp.  279-288;  Abbott, 
pp.  24-34.  2.  General  View  of  its  External  History.  Shuck- 
burgh,  chs.  6,  7;  How  and  Leigh,  chs.  7,  10.  3.  The  Consul.  How 
and  Leigh,  pp.  47-50;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  203-205;  Abbott,  p.  25. 
4.  The  Tribune.  Abbott,  pp.  196-202.  5.  The  Decemvirate. 
Abbott,  pp.  30-31;  How  and  Leigh,  ch.  8.  6.  The  Roman 
Citizen,  His  Rights  and  Duties.  Morey,  pp.  63-64.  7.  The  Cen- 
turiate  Assembly.  Abbott,  pp.  26-27,  253-259.  8.  The  Ques- 
tion of  the  Comitia  Tributa.  Abbott,  pp.  33,  259-261;  Myres, 
p.  77  (note).  9.  The  Twelve  Tables.  Munro,  pp.  54-55  (source); 
Shuckburgh,  pp.  101—104. 


(2)    THE  UNION   OF  ITALY  UNDER  ROME 

390-265  B.C. 

332.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  preceding  century  The  Keltic 
swarms  of  Kelts  had  been  pouring  down  from  central    nvasion- 
Europe  over  the  Alpine  passes  into  the  valley  of  the  Po. 
They  filled  it  to  overflowing,  drove  the  Ligurians  back 
into  the  western  hills  and  the  Etruscans  into  the  western 
plain,  and  began  to  push  southward  over  the  Apennines. 
We  have  already  seen  them  forcing  their  way  into  Greece 
and  Asia  Minor,  though  at  a  later  period  (§  284).     They 


280  Union  of  Italy  under  Rome 

were  rude,  savage  warriors,  of  huge  bulk,  with  mighty 
weapons,  attacking  their  opponents  with  an  impetuous  fury 
that  usually  carried  all  before  it.  Soon  they  appeared 
in  the  western  plain,  attracted  by  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
and  the  wealth  of  the  inhabitants.  Etruria  was  overrun; 
Burning  a  bold  band  appeared  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome,  defeated 
the  Roman  army,  captured  and  burned  the  city  (about 
390  B.C.). 

The  story  goes  that  Roman  ambassadors,  sent  into  Etruria  to 
treat  with  the  oncoming  Kelts,  had  joined  with  the  Etruscans  in 
fighting  against  them.  Incensed  at  this,  the  Kelts  under  their 
chief,  Brennus,  advanced  rapidly  on  Rome.  The  Romans,  unpre- 
pared, hastily  gathered  a  force  and  met  the  invaders  eleven  miles 
from  Rome,  at  the  river  Allia,  and  were  utterly  defeated.  A  few  es- 
caped into  the  citadel,  leaving  the  gates  of  the  city  open.  The  Kelts 
entered  the  city  abandoned  by  all  except  the  defenders  of  the  citadel 
and  the  senators  sitting  in  state  in  their  porches.  The  city  was  set  on 
fire  and  the  citadel  besieged.  Once  it  was  almost  captured  by  night, 
only  the  sacred  geese  by  cackling  and  clapping  their  wings  aroused 
the  defenders  in  time.  The  scattered  Romans  were  united  under  a 
leader,  Camillus,  who  was  made  Dictator.  The  Kelts  were  driven 
out.  Then  the  city  was  rebuilt 

333.  Rome's  day  of  power  seemed  over.  It  might 
have  been  so,  had  the  Keltic  fury  burst  upon  her  alone. 
But  other  states  had  suffered  in  north  and  south.  When 
Rome's  Rome  recovered  and  had  rebuilt  the  city,  she  was  still  as 
Recovery,  strong  as  her  neighbors  and  was  eager  to  fight  again  with 
the  invaders.  The  danger  from  the  Kelts  was  serious. 
Their  bands  were  constantly  coming  over  the  Apennines. 
It  was  the  question  of  questions  whether  they  would  not 
overpower  all  Italy.  For  forty  years,  from  390  to  350  B.C., 
the  peril  was  pressing.  The  Romans  stood  in  the  breach 
and,  for  at  least  five  times  in  those  years,  they  met  and 


The  Samnite  Wars  281 


repulsed  Keltic  raids.     Thus  the  Romans  really  saved  stands  as 

Defender 
of  Italy. 


all  that  Italy  had  gained  in  political  power  and  civilization  Defender 


from  being  destroyed.  The  other  states  recognized  this; 
Rome  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  defender  of  the  states 
of  the  western  plain  against  attacks.  People  outside  of 
Italy  heard  of  it.  The  Greek  philosopher  Aristotle  (§  276) 
knew  of  her  gallant  defence  against  the  Kelts.  From 
this  time  on,  she  ceased  to  be  a  mere  petty  state,  fighting 
with  neighbors,  and  stepped  into  the  larger  history  of  the 
world. 

334.  During  those  forty  years  Rome  finally  overcame  Etruna 
the  neighboring  states  with  which  she  had  fought  so  long.  Won- 
Etruria,  as  far  north  as  the  Ciminian  forest,  the  Latin 
cities,  and  even  the  Volsci,  were  united  under  Roman 
leadership.    The  river  Liris  was  Rome's  southern  boun- 
dary.    Soon  that  was  crossed  and  Campania  was  entered. 

This  advance  meant  war  with  the  Samnites. 

335.  The  advance  of  the  Kelts  southward  had  affected  wars  with 
not  only  the  people  of  the  plain  but  also  the  mountain-  ^g*™" 
eers.     They  had  been  pushed  on  and  had  crowded  the 
southern  tribes.     Chief  among  the  people  that  felt  this 
pressure  were  the  Samnites,  a  strong  and  warlike  confed- 
eracy, possessing  greater  power  and  unity  than  any  moun- 
tain peoples  hitherto  met  by  Rome.     They  naturally  fell 

upon  the  plain  beneath  them,  the  populous  and  fertile 
Campania.  The  Campanians  appealed  to  Rome  for  aid 
and  offered  to  accept  Roman  authority.  Commercial 
interests  united  with  ambition  to  lead  the  Romans  to  accept 
the  offer  and  oppose  the  Samnites.  The  war  that  followed 
was  long  and  trying,  broken  by  intervals  of  peace;  it  lasted 
for  half  a  century  (343-290  B.C.)  and  drew  almost  all  the 
states  of  central  and  southern  Italy  into  its  toils.  The  first  First  war. 


282          'Union  of  Italy  under  Rome 

contest  was  short  (343-341  B.C.)  ;  the  peace  that  followed 
gave  Rome  the  headship  of  Campania.     The  next  fifteen 
The  Latin     years  saw  the  crushing  of  a  rebellion  in  Latium,  the  cities 
Revolt.        Q£  Wj1jc]1  began  to  fear  that  Rome  was  growing  too  strong. 
second         In  326  B.C.  war  broke  out  again  with  the  Samnites.    After 
a  severe  defeat  at  the  battle  of  the  Caudine  Forks,  where 
their  soldiers  were  compelled  to  pass  under  a  yoke  made 
of  three  spears  as  a  token  of  disgraceful  submission,  the 
Romans  steadily  gained.     The  Samnites  stirred  up  the 
people  of  the  plain  who  feared  Rome's  growing  power;   the 
Etruscans  joined  them  and  the  Umbrians  of  the   upper 
Apennines;  but  Roman  valor  triumphed  and  peace  again 
marked  Rome's  success  in  304  B.C.     The  reappearance  of 
Third  War.  the  Kelts  stirred  up  the  third  struggle,  in  which  Etruscans, 
Umbrians,  Lucanians  and  Kelts  united  under   Samnite 
direction  for  a  final  attempt  to  break  Roman   headship 
(298  B.C.).     The  culminating  point  was  the  battle  of  Sen- 
tinum  (295  B.C.),  in  Umbria,  where  the  soldiers  of  the 
victory  of    alliance  were  beaten  by  the  Romans.     The  treaty  which 
Rome'         ended  the  war  in  290  B.C.  settled  Rome's    superiority. 
Roman  authority  was  now  supreme  from  the  upper  Apen- 
nines to  the  foot  of  Italy.    The  mountaineers  would  never 
more  trouble  the  plain. 

Difficulties       336.  Rome's  sphere  of  influence  now  bordered  on  the 
Magna        territory  of  the  Greek  cities  in  southern  Italy.    The  in- 
Gracia.        fluence  of  Greek  culture  and  political  life  upon  Rome  had 
already  been  considerable  and  the  opportunities  of  com- 
mercial intercourse  had  brought  both  parties  into  friendly 
relations.     Some  time  before  300  B.C.  a  treaty  between 
Rome  and  Tarentum  had  been  made.     Thus,  when  the 
mountaineers,  defeated  in  the  western  plain,  began  to 
make  inroads  into  Magna  Graecia,  it  was  natural    that 


Growth  of  Plebeian  Power          283 

several  of  the  Greek  cities  should  look  to  Rome  for  defence. 
But  Tarentum  was  not  so  inclined;  as  Rome  gained  head- 
ship over  the  other  Greek  cities  by  relieving  them  from 
their  enemies,  she  took  offence.  How  she  gained  the  help  of 
the  valiant  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus  has  already  been  told  (§  283).  war  with 
In  the  war  that  followed  (281-272  B.C.),  the  skilful  Greek  Pyrrhus- 
general  at  first  defeated  the  Romans  by  his  elephants  and 
his  cavalry.  But  at  last  he  was  beaten  at  Beneventum 
and  returned  to  Epirus,  leaving  Tarentum  to  make  terms 
with  Rome  as  best  she  could.  She  submitted  and  Roman 
power  soon  became  supreme  over  all  the  southern  coast 
of  Italy  (270  B.C.). 

337.  This  period  of  more  than  a  century,  in  which  During 
Rome  extended  her  sway  in  Italy,  was  marked  by  some  Jj^seWars 
important  changes  in  her  inner  life.     The  progress  of  the  Plebeians 
plebeians  toward  political  supremacy  (§§  329-330)  con-  Thetrge 
tinued.     So  far  as  the  offices  were  concerned,  they  sue-  P°litical 

7  J  Power. 

ceeded  in  obtaining  entrance,  first  to  one  of  the  consul- 
ships, then  to  both,  then  to  all  the  offices  hitherto  reserved 
to  the  patricians.  Soon  even  the  pontifices  and  the 
augurs  could  be  chosen  from  among  them.  As  for  their 
legislative  power  in  the  comitia  tributa  (§  330),  it  was 
established  as  supreme  even  over  the  senate;  the  latter 
now  gave  its  assent  beforehand  to  laws  proposed  by  the 
people  in  this  assembly.  Finally,  even  this  assent  was 
not  required. 

338.  The  tradition  has  preserved  these  changes  in  a  TheXradi- 
series  of  legal  enactments  as  follows :  £££j  of 

Laws. 

367  B.C.  The  laws  proposed  by  Licinius  and  Sextus  provided  that 
at  least  one  consul  should  be  plebeian  and  that  ten  priests  should 
have  charge  of  the  Sibylline  books  (§  315),  half  of  whom  should 
be  plebeians.  Other  parts  of  this  legislation  relate  to  limitations  on 


284 


Union  of  Italy  under  Rome 


Political 
Unity  of  the 
Citizen 
Body 
Secured, 


But  Rise  of 
Other  Dis- 
tinctions, 


the  holding  of  land,  interest  on  debts  and  the  employment  of  slave 
labor. 

339  B.C.  The  Publilian  law  (ofPublilius  Philo)  provided  that  the 
assent  of  the  senate  to  the  measures  of  the  comitia  should  be  given 
beforehand. 

300  B.C.  The  Ogulnian  law  provided  that  a  certain  number  of 
places  in  the  pontificate  and  augurate  should  be  held  by  plebeians. 

287  B.C.  The  Hortensian  law  provided  that  the  assent  of  the 
senate  to  laws  of  the  comitia  was  not  required. 

339.  The  truth  is  that  the  old  distinction  between  pa- 
trician and  plebeian  was  practically  wiped  out.  The 
Roman  state  was  now  one  people  Opportunity  for  more 
people  to  take  part  in  public  affairs  was  given  by  the  action 
of  Appius  Claudius,  the  censor,  in  312  B.C.  He  enrolled  in 
the  tribes  those  whose  property  was  not  in  land  and  even 
well-to-do  freedmen,  thus  giving  to  them  the  same  citizen 
rights  as  the  landed  proprietors.  It  was  another  step  toward 
general  political  equality.  But  right  along  with  the  re- 
moval of  the  distinction  made  by  blood  arose  another  made 
by  wealth  and  official  position.  Commerce  and  war  had 
given  many  plebeians  riches,  while  many  others  had  become 
poor.  It  soon  came  to  be  the  rule  that,  though  all  ple- 
beians were  eligible,  only  rich  men  should  be  chosen  for 
public  office.  The  officials  when  their  term  of  office  ex- 
pired went  into  the  senate,*  which,  therefore,  was  a  body  of 
wealthy  men  who  had  experience  in  political  and  military 
affairs.  Wealth,  coupled  with  wisdom,  has  the  best  chance 
for  leadership;  hence  it  very  naturally  came  about  that  the 
senate  took  the  direction  of  affairs,  although  the  people 

*  The  restriction  to  ex-officials  in  the  choice  of  senators  was  established 
by  the  Ovinian  law,  by  which  also  the  censor  was  substituted  for  the 
consul  as  the  official  who  appointed  the  senators.  This  law  dates  from 
some  time  before  312  B.C. 


Extension  of  Citizenship  285 

had  the  power.    The  oligarchy  of  wealth  and  official  A  New 
position  occupied  the  place  of  the  oligarchy  of  birth;  the  OUgarchy' 
people  accepted  the  change  and  continued  to  be  led. 

340.  No  less  remarkable  than  the  gradual  extension  Roman  or- 
of  Roman  power  over  the  territory  of  Italy  was  Rome's  ^j^00 
organization  of  the  lands  acknowledging  its  headship. 
Rome's  membership  in  the  Latin  League  at  the  beginning 

of  its  career  was  a  determining  factor  in  its  policy  toward  The 
neighbors ;  the  city  stood  as  a  chief  among  equals,  not  as  a  Pnncip  fc 
conqueror  ruling  subjects. 

341.  In  harmony  with  this  fundamental  idea  the  Ro-  incorpora- 
mans,  first  of  all,  made  many  of  the  communities  they  £j",j[ered 
absorbed  parts  of  the  Roman  state  and  their  people  citi-  People  as 
zens.    At  first  and  for  a  long  time  to  be  a  Roman  citizen 
involved -more  burdens  than  privileges.     Citizens  had  to 

serve  in  the  armies  and  pay  taxes;  we  have  seen  the  hard- 
ships that  these  brought  in  their  train  (§  329).  Some 
communities  had  all  the  obligations  of  citizens  forced 
upon  them,  without  obtaining  in  return  the  privilege  of 
the  franchise.*  Romans  were  sent  out  to  form  colonies  at  Roman 
important  points  on  the  western  coast  or  to  settle  on  pub-  Colomes* 
lie  lands;  such  colonists  retained  their  citizenship.  As  a 
result  of  these  various  measures,  groups  of  Roman  citizens 
were  found  scattered  all  over  Italy.  At  the  end  of  this 
period,  those  with  full  rights  numbered  not  far  from  300,- 
ooo  people  and  occupied  about  a  third  of  all  the  territory 
of  Italy.  They  were  organized  into  thirty-five  tribes, 
meeting  and  voting  in  the  comitia.  As  for  the  local  gov- 
ernment of  these  communities,  this  was  largely  in  their 

*  This  was  called  the  Caeritian  right,  because  it  had  been  first  applied 
in  the  case  of  the  Etruscan  city  of  Caere.  Such  cities  were  called  mu- 
nicipid,  ».?.,  "the  takers  up  of  burdens  "—a  characteristic  title t 


286  Union  of  Italy  under  Rome 

own  hands  and  was  formed  on  Roman  models.  But  in 
Prefects.  the  case  of  the  administration  of  justice,  prefects  were 
sent  out  from  Rome  to  hold  court  in  the  municipia  at 
regular  times,  since  Roman  law  was  new  to  them.  Like- 
wise, where  districts  in  which  no  cities  existed  were 
taken  into  the  Roman  state,  Roman  prefects  were  placed 
in  charge. 

342.  Other  communities  were  made  "  allies  and  friends." 
They  had  neither  the  rights  nor  the  obligations  of  citizens. 
Allied          The  most  favored  allies  were  those  given  rights  enjoyed 
states.         formerly  by  the  old  Latin  League,  which  had  nov^  disap- 
peared.    The  members  could  trade  with  Rome  and  marry 
into  Roman  families.*    Many  colonies  were  sent  out  from 
Rome  under  this  system  to  occupy  strategic  positions. 
Latin          These  were  called  "Latin  Colonies."     A  Roman  who 
Colonies.      went  out  {O  jom  a  "  Latin  colony  "  gave  up  his  citizenship,! 
but,  in  addition  to  the  privileges  already  mentioned,  could 
share  in  the  booty  of  Roman  wars  and  claim  his  part  of 
the  public  land.     In  course  of  time  these  privileges  were 
somewhat  restricted,  but  the  "Latin  colony"  was  always 
on  a  higher  plane  than  other  allied  communities.    Next 
Italian         below  these  were  the  Italian  allies,  each  of  which  had  a 
A1Ue8'         separate  treaty  with  Rome  denning  its  status.    All  allies 
of  whatsoever  status  could  have  relations  with  each  other 
only  through  Rome.     While  they  had  independence  so  far 
as  home  politics  was  concerned,  Rome  decided  on  all 
foreign  affairs,  matters  of  war  and  peace  and  questions  re- 
lating to  their  commercial  interests.     Each  ally  furnished 
troops  to  the  Roman  army. 

*  These  rights  were  technically  called  commercium  and  connubium. 

t  As  citizenship  at  this  time  carried  with  it  heavy  burdens,  the  privilege 
of  relinquishing  it  was  really  a  "bonus"  offered  to  those  who  were  willing 
to  leave  the  city  to  go  to  a  "Latin  colony." 


The  New  Common  Name  287 

343.  Thus  was  slowly  and  steadily  built  up  a  united  Italy 
Italy  with  its  centre  and  soul  in  Rome.     The  state  itself,   ™£f 
made  up  of  the  capital  city,  the  Roman  colonies  and  the  Rome, 
municipia,  was  bound  up  closely  with  the  allies,  both  those 
given  the  Latin  right  and  those  having  separate  treaties  with 
Rome.     The  interests  of  all  gathered  about  the  capital, 

yet  a  large  share  of  local  independence  preserved  the 
sense  of  freedom  and  the  power  of  initiative.  The  system 
of  public  roads  leading  from  the  city  to  strategic  points  Roads, 
aided  in  binding  these  cities  to  Rome.  It  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at,  therefore,  that,  as  this  period  drew  to  a  close, 
a  common  name  arose  both  for  land  and  people.  The 
defence  against  the  alien  Kelts  stimulated  this  sense  of 
oneness.  The  land  was  now  called  Italy,  and  the  people  The 
of  Italy;  distinguishing  their  common  dress  from  that  of 
the  Kelts,  were  called  "  men  of  the  toga." 

344.  During  the  years  in  which  the  union  of  Italy  was 
accomplished,  important  advances  were  made  in  the  Ro- 
man  military   organization.      The   old   Servian   system  Military 
(§  316)  was  not  equal  to  the  new  demands,  either  in  its  ^^m 
conditions  of  service  or  its  organization.      Instead  of  re- 
quiring the  citizen  to  equip  and  support   himself,  the 

state  now  supplied  him  arms  and  rations  and  paid  him  for 
his  service.  He  was  also  usually  granted  a  share  of  the 
booty,  although  in  theory  all  that  was  taken  belonged  to 
the  state  and  was  turned  into  the  public  treasury.  As 
respects  organization,  the  arrangement  of  the  men  in  the 
legion  according  to  property  gave  way  to  that  according 
to  valor,  ability  and  experience.  The  solid  phalanx  on 
the  Greek  model  was  found  unable  to  stand  the  fierce 
rushes  of  the  Kelts  and  the  Samnites,  and  was  altered  to  a 
loose  formation.  The  legion  was  divided  into  three  lines, 


288  Union  of  Italy  under  Rome 

The  New  separated  sharply  from  each  other.  Each  line  was  made 
thedLe°km  UP  °^  *en  companies  called  maniples.  Each  maniple  of 
the  first  two  lines  had  a  front  of  twenty  men  and  a  depth 
of  six  men  (the  third  had  a  depth  of  three  men),  and  each 
was  separated  from  the  other  by  a  space  of  at  least  its  own 
width.  The  maniples  of  the  second  line  were  placed  so  as 
to  face  the  spaces  made  by  the  first  line;  and  those  of  the 
third  line  faced  the  spaces  left  by  the  second.  In  battle, 
the  first  line,  if  beaten  back,  could  retire  into  the  space 
left  in  the  second  line,  which  then  took  up  the  attack,  while 
the  third  line,  which  was  composed  of  the  most  able  and 
experienced  veterans,  could  if  necessary  advance  through 
the  openings  and  permit  the  other  lines  to  retire.  Behind 
each  line  was  a  body  of  maniples  of  light-armed  troops 
two  men  deep,  making  4,200  men  in  the  legion.  The 
soldiers  were  armed  with  helmets,  cuirasses  and  shields 
for  defence,  and  with  swords,  lances,  pikes  and  javelins 
for  attack.  The  allied  troops  fought  on  each  side  of  the 
legion.  The  cavalry,  placed  outside  the  wings,  was  in- 
significant in  numbers  and  played  no  great  part.  To 
The  camp,  avoid  a  sudden  attack  a  Roman  army  made  a  fortified  camp 
whenever  it  halted  for  the  night.  Every  voting  citizen 
between  the  ages  of  seventeen  and  forty-six  was  liable  to 
be  levied  for  military  service;  he  must  take  the  solemn 
The  Oath,  military  oath  before  the  gods  and  was  then  entirely  under 
the  authority  of  the  commander,  who  exacted  absolute 
obedience  and  had  the  power  of  life  and  death.  The 
discipline  was  exceedingly  severe.  A  great  victory  was 
The  the  occasion  of  celebrating  a  triumph,  providing  that 

Triumph,  ^g  senate  gave  its  consent.  In  solemn  and  splendid 
procession,  attended  by  magistrates  and  senators,  the 
spoils  of  war  before  him,  the  victorious  general,  seated 


The  Triumph  289 

on  a  chariot,  a  laurel  crown  on  his  nead,  and  his  face 
painted  red  like  the  gods,  rode  into  the  city  at  the  head 
of  his  troops  to  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  where  he  offered 
thanksgiving. 

OUTLINE   FOR  REVIEW 
III.  THE   EMPIRE   OF  ROME 

1.  The  Making  of  Rome. 

2.  ROME'S  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

(i)  Rome's  defence  against  neighbors.  (2)  Union  of  Italy  under 
Rome.  The  Keltic  invasion — Rome's  defence  and  its  significance 
— winning  of  Etruria — wars  with  Samnites  (first  war,  Latin  revolt, 
second  war,  third  war) — wars  with  Magna  Graecia — Pyrrhus — 
internal  development — growth  of  Plebeian  power — laws — unity  in 
the  state — rise  of  new  distinctions — organization  of  Italy  under 
Rome  (conquered  made  citizens — Roman  colonies — others  made 
allies — Latin  colonies — other  means  of  union — common  name) — 
military  reorganization — camp — oath — triumph. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  were  the  following  noted: 
Sentinum,  Caere,  Beneventum,  Aristotle?  2.  What  is  meant 
by  "men  of  the  toga,"  Licinian  laws,  municipium,  maniple? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  a  "Latin"  with  a 
"  Roman"  colony.  2.  Compare  both  with  a  Greek  colony 
(§  "4). 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  Camillus 
and  the  Story  of  the  Keltic  Invasion.  Plutarch,  Life  of  Camil- 
lus; Seignobos,  pp.  60— 64.  2.  The  Samnite  Wars.  Myres,  chs. 
jo-ii.  3.  The  Latin  Revolt.  Shuckburgh,  pp.  131-133;  How 
and  Leigh,  pp.  102-105.  4.  Pyrrhus  from  the  Greek  and  from 
the  Roman  Point  of  View.  5.  History  of  the  Plebeian  Struggle 
after  390  B.C.  Abbott,  pp.  34-53;  Shuckburgh,  ch.  13;  Myres, 
ch.  9;  Fowler,  City  State,  ch.  7.  6.  The  Licinian  Laws: 
Special  Study.  Munro,  pp.;s  7-60  (sources) ;  Botsford,  pp.  85-86; 
Abbott,  pp.  36-37;  How  and  Leigh,  ch.  12.  7.  Roman  Or- 
ganization of  Italy.  Abbott,  pp.  57-60;  Botsford,  pp.  62-63; 
Myres,  pp.  146-149.  8.  The  Roman  Army.  Seignobos,  ch.  7; 
Shuckburgh,  pp.  214-218. 


290  Union  of  Italy  under  Rome 

The  old  345.  This  age  saw  old  Roman  life  at  its  highest  point 

Life""*  °f  strength  and  achievement.  It  was  to  suffer  an  almost 
complete  transformation  as  Rome  expanded.  We  may 
pause,  therefore,  to  sketch  some  of  its  characteristic 
features. 

Occupa-  346.  The  Roman  was  devoted  chiefly  to  agriculture. 
At  first,  cattle-raising,  later,  the  growing  of  grain,  occupied 

igricuit-  him.  The  product  of  his  farm  was  principally  wheat,  but 
he  also  grew  vegetables  and  fruit.  The  olive  was  widely 
cultivated.  Of  domestic  animals  he  had  cattle,  horses, 
sheep  and  hogs.  The  farmer  with  his  sons  did  the  work, 
for  the  farms  were  usually  small.  Every  eighth  day  was 
a  market-day,  when  the  farmer  went  to  town  with  his 

.odustry.  produce.  In  the  city  industry  was  well  advanced.  The 
workingmen  had  already  organized  into  unions  or  guilds 
for  the  purpose  of  handing  down  the  secrets  of  their  craft 
from  generation  to  generation.  Eight  of  these  unions  are 
known — the  goldsmiths,  the  coppersmiths,  the  dyers,  the 
fullers  (laundrymen),  the  shoemakers,  the  carpenters,  th< 
potters  and  the  flute-blowers.  Trading  and  commerce 
were  profitable  employments,  but  they  were  not  highlj 
regarded  by  the  Romans.  The  same  was  true  of  the 

Business.  Greeks  (§  176).  No  independent  class  of  merchants  or 
tradesmen  was  ever  formed.  This  fact  shows  how  dear 
to  the  Roman  heart  were  the  pursuits  of  agriculture.  Yet 
the  profits  of  commerce  attracted  the  better  classes  who 
had  capital  and  wanted  to  increase  it  rapidly;  unwilling 
to  mix  in  commerce  themselves,  they  employed  slaves  or 
dependent  freedmen  to  carry  on  such  pursuits  in  their 
interest.  Thus  the  business  of  Rome  fell  largely  into  the 
hands  of  such  classes  and  became  still  more  unworthy  of 
freemen. 


* 


TYPICAL    COINS 


TYPICAL    COINS 


Simplicity  of  Life  291 

347.  The  standard  of  business  value  in  the  earliest  time  Money 
was  cattle,  as  is  shown  by  the  Latin  word  for  money,  pec- 
unia  (from  pecus,  "cattle").     But  soon  a  change  to  cop- 
per took  place;  it  is  witnessed  to  by  our  word  "estimate'' 
(Latin  astimare),  from  as,  "copper."    A  pound  of  it  cast 

in  a  mould  was  called  an  as  and  became  the  unit  of  Roman 
coinage.  When  Rome  had  united  all  Italy,  a  silver  coin- 
age was  introduced.  In  269  B.C.  the  silver  denarius, 
equal  to  ten  asses,  appeared.* 

348.  As  might  be  expected  of  a  community  composed 
chiefly  of  farmers,  Roman  life  was  simple  and  rude.    The 

house  originally  consisted  of  one  room,  the  atrium,  in  The  House 
which  all  the  family  lived.  It  had  no  windows  and  but 
one  door.  Opposite  the  door  was  the  hearth.  An  open- 
ing in  the  centre  of  the  roof  let  the  smoke  out  and  the  light 
and  rain  in.  The  latter  fell  into  a  hollow  in  the  floor  just 
beneath  the  opening.  In  time,  this  primitive  house  was 
enlarged  on  the  sides  and  in  the  rear.  The  walls  were 
built  of  stone  or  sun-baked  brick  covered  with  stucco; 
the  floor  was  of  earth  mixed  with  stone  and  fragments  of 
pottery  pounded  down  hard ;  the  roof  of  thatch,  shingles, 
or  tile.  A  couch,  table  and  stool  constituted  the  furniture.  Furniture. 
The  lamp  was  a  flat,  covered  vessel  holding  oil;  through 
a  hole  in  the  top  a  coarse  wick  was  drawn,  whence  came  a 
feeble,  flickering  light.  In  cold  weather  a  box  containing 
hot  coals  supplied  heat.  At  meal-time  the  family  sat  on 
stools  around  the  table.  Dinner  was  served  in  the  middle 
of  the  day.  The  chief  food  in  early  times  was  ground  Food, 
meal  boiled  with  water.  Thus  the  Roman,  like  the  Scotch- 

*  Later  the  denarius  was  equal  to  sixteen  asses.  The  sestertius  was 
one-fourth  of  the  denarius.  A  sum  of  money  equal  to  one  thousand 
sestertii  was  called  sesterlium. 


292  Union  of  Italy  under  Rome 

man,  grew  strong  on  porridge.  Pork  was  the  favorite 
meat;  eight  Latin  words  for  hog  and  half  a  dozen  for  sau- 
sage testify  to  this.  Bread  of  wheat  or  barley  was  baked 
in  flat  round  cakes.  Olive-oil,  cheese  and  honey  were  used 
with  it.  The  usual  drink  was  water  or  milk.  Wine  was 
not  common.  When  drunk  it  was  mixed  with  water. 
Various  vegetables,  such  as  beans,  onions,  cabbages  and 
turnips,  and  fruits,  such  as  figs,  apples,  pears  and  plums, 
were  cultivated.  The  frugality  of  the  Roman  in  his  food 

Dress.  was  matched  by  the  simplicity  of  his  dress.  About  his 
loins  he  wore  a  strip  of  cloth  over  which  he  drew  a  short- 
sleeved  woollen  shirt  or  tunic  reaching  to  his  knees.  This 
was  the  ordinary  dress  while  at  home.  When  he  appeared 
in  public,  he  threw  over  this  shirt  a  gracefully  folded  blan- 

The  Toga,  ket  of  white  wool  called  a  toga.  It  was  this  which  became 
his  characteristic  garment,  distinguishing  him  from  all 
other  men.  In  bad  weather  or  on  a  journey  a  cloak  might 
be  worn.  The  women's  garments  consisted  of  two  tunics 
for  the  house  and  a  wrap  (palla)  for  the  street.  Neither 
sex  wore  hats  or  stockings.  The  feet  were  protected  by 
sandals  or  shoes.  The  hair  and  beard  were  worn  long  in 
early  times,  but,  later,  men  shaved  their  faces  and  cut  their 
hair  close.  Professional  barbers  appeared  in  Rome  about 
300  B.C.  Every  citizen  wore  a  seal-ring  on  the  joint  of  the 
finger;  women  were  granted  greater  privileges  in  the  mat- 

jeweiry.  ter  of  jewelry  and  they  were  very  fond  of  display.  Their 
hair  was  put  up  elaborately;  they  had  fans,  parasols  and 
all  sorts  of  rings,  bracelets,  chains  and  breastpins. 

Amuse-  349.  Amusements  had  also  their  place  in  old  Roman 

!nts'         life.    Babies  played  with  rattles ;  children  with  dolls,  carts, 

tops  and  hoops.    When  childish  sports  were  put  away,  the 

young  Roman  found  his  amusement  in  the  athletic  exercises 


The  Roman  Family  293 

of  the  Campus  Martius,  in  running,  wrestling  and  feats  of  Athletics, 
arms.    These  were,  however,  training  for  citizenship  and 
service;  it  has  been  well  said  that  the  Romans  had  no  idea 
of  sport  for  sport's  sake.     Life  was  too  stern  and  strenuous. 
For  relaxation  they  turned  to  exciting  spectacles,  of  which 
the  chief  were  the  chariot  races.     They  were  run  in  the  The 
Circus  Maximus,  which  lay  between  the  Palatine  and  the  RaceSi 
Aventine,  over  a  narrow  elliptical  course  covered  with  sand; 
seven   laps,  about  four  miles,  were  run;  the  turns  were 
sharp  and  dangerous;  chariots  were  liable  to  be  smashed 
and  drivers  killed;  all  this  raised  excitement  to  fever  heat. 
But  no  Roman  participated  except  as  a  spectator;  freedmen 
or  slaves  acted  as  charioteers.     The  same  was  true  of  the 
theatrical  exhibitions.    The  stage  in  the  Circus,  which  was  The 
erected  in  364  B.C.,  was  occupied  by  persons  whom  the      eatre* 
Romans  regarded  as  disreputable;  to  dance  or  to  play  in 
public  was  the  part  of  foreigners  or  slaves.    To  the  un- 
bending, respectable,  dignified  Roman  the  point  of  view 
of  the  Greek  (§§  138,  157,  186)  regarding  all  these  things 
was  incomprehensible  and  disgraceful.     He  would  con- 
descend to  laugh,  but  would  not  dream  of  taking  part. 

350.  The  centre  about  which  old  Roman  life  revolved  The 
was  the  family.     Its  head  was  the  paterfamilias  ("father  Family- 
of  the  family"),  the  oldest  male  member,  who  had  absolute 
power  over  the  person  and  property  of  the  other  members,  The 
whether  wife,  sons  and  their  families,  or  unmarried  daugh-  p*^1"* 8 
ters.    A  new-born  child  was  laid  at  his  feet,  and  by  taking 
it  up  he  decided  that  it  should  be  received  into  the  family. 
Otherwise  it  was  carried  away  and  abandoned.     When 
a  daughter  was  married,  she  passed  under  the  authority 
of  her  husband's  father.     A  son  must  marry  at  the  bidding 
of  his  father;  his  position  in  the  state  was  dependent  on 


294  Union  of  Italy  under  Rome 

the  father.  Of  course  these  powers  of  the  father  were 
practically  limited;  a  wife  could  not  be  divorced  nor  a 
child  put  to  death  by  him  without  good  cause  and  after 
consultation  with  other  members  of  the  family;  nor  could 

Marriage,  the  family  property  be  disposed  of  arbitrarily.  Marriage 
was  a  religious  as  well  as  a  civic  affair;  a  solemn  betrothal 
preceded,  sealed  by  a  ring  placed  on  the  third  finger  of  the 
left  hand;  the  consent  of  the  bride  was  required;  the  mar- 
riage ceremony  consisted  of  the  joining  of  hands,  the  sign- 
ing of  a  contract,  sacrifices  by  the  religious  officials,  and 
other  ceremonials.  On  the  wedding-day  the  mother 
dressed  the  bride,  who  wore  a  veil;  the  husband  went 
through  a  form  of  taking  her  by  force  from  her  father's 
house;  a  wedding -feast  and  a  bridal  procession  were  feat- 
ures of  the  affair.  The  bride  brought  a  dowry  to  her 

The  husband.     A  matron  at  Rome,  in  contrast  with  Greek 

Mother.  custom  (§  I79)}  held  a  very  important  position.  She 
managed  the  household,  trained  her  children,  received 
her  guests  in  person,  was  honored  in  public,  was  given  a 
special  place  at  entertainments,  engaged  in  special  religious 
festivals,  could  give  testimony  in  the  courts.  It  has  been 
said  that  marriage  gave  the  Roman  woman  "a  position 
unattained  by  the  women  of  any  other  nation  in  the  ancient 
world."  Children,  particularly  sons,  were  highly  prized 

Children.  and  carefully  trained.  On  the  son  depended  the  future 
of  the  family.  The  day  of  the  giving  the  boy  his  name  * 
was  a  festal  time  in  which  an  amulet  (build)  was  hung  about 
his  neck  and  presents  were  made.  If  a  family  had  no  son, 

Adoption,     one  might  be  formally  adopted  and  he  became  in  all  re- 

*  First  of  all,  he  bore  the  name  of  the  house  (gens) ;  this  was  the  nomen. 
Preceding  this  came  the  personal  name  (pranomen)  given  a  few  days 
after  birth.  Following  the  nomen  was  the  cognomen  or  family  name. 


Roman  Education  295 

spects  a  member  of  the  family  and  took  the  family  name 
in  addition  to  his  own. 

351.  All  these  facts  help  us  to  see  how  fundamentally  importance 
important  the  family  was  at  Rome.     It  included  the  dead  £"£  Fam" 
as  well  as  the  living,  all  bound  together  in  one  solemn  unity.  Roman 
On  the  preservation  of  the  family  depended  the  continuance 

of  the  sacrificial  rites  in  which  living  and  dead  were 
thought  to  join.  Hence  the  birth  and  rearing  of  children 
was  all-important.  In  the  atrium  (§  348)  stood  the  wax 
images  of  the  dead  to  remind  the  living  of  the  abiding  tie 
of  relationship.  The  paterfamilias  received  his  authority 
over  the  family  as  its  representative,  the  trustee  of  its  prop- 
erty, the  pledge  of  its  continuance.  Thus  the  importance  Superior 
of  any  individual  member  was  subordinate  to  and  sunk  individual 
in  the  higher  unity  of  the  whole.  Obedience  and  service 
were  the  watchwords ;  devotion  to  the  interests  of  the  family 
was  superior  to  all  personal  advantage.  No  wonder  that 
under  this  training  men  of  honor  and  fidelity,  women  of 
discretion  and  purity,  grew  up  to  serve  and  glorify  their 
fatherland. 

352.  Education  corresponded  to  the  thoroughly  practical  Education 
bent  of  the  Roman  character.     Up  to  seven  years  of  age 

the  children  were  trained  at  home  by  the  mother.     Then 
the  boy  was  sent  to  school,  while  the  girl  was  kept  at  home  Of  Girls, 
to  be  further  instructed  in  domestic  arts.     Roman  women 
were  not  highly  educated,  yet  the  liberty  they  enjoyed, 
the  companionship  of  their  husbands  and  family  and  the 
respect  shown  them  in  society  were  in  themselves  an  edu- 
cation.  It  is  said  that  they  spoke  the  best  and  purest  Latin. 
Boys  were  sent  to  private  schools.     They  were  attended  Of  Boys 
by  a  slave  (called  "pedagogue")  and  were  taught  by  slaves 
or  freedmen  the  rudiments  of  education  in  reading,  writing 


296  Union  of  Italy  under  Rome 


Public  Life. 


Admission 
to  Citizen- 
ship. 


The 
Assembly. 


The  State 
Superior  to 
the  Indi- 
vidual. 


Importance 
of  Law. 


and  arithmetic.  Work  began  before  sunrise.  The  teacher 
was  paid  a  small  fee  and  the  discipline  was  harsh.  No 
text-books  were  used,  except  that  the  code  of  the  Twelve 
Tables  (§  330)  was  read,  written  and  committed  to  mem- 
ory. It  is  claimed  that,  although  higher  subjects  were 
not  taught,  the  elements  at  least  of  education  were  more 
generally  diffused  among  the  Romans  than  elsewhere  in 
antiquity. 

353.  The  participation  in  public  life  was  also  educative. 
The  youth  at  about  seventeen  years  of  age  attained  his 
majority  and  began  his  public  career;  he  laid  aside  his 
toga  pr&texta  and  assumed  the  toga  mrilis;  surrounded 
by  his  family  and  friends  he  went  to  the  Forum  and,  amid 
congratulations,  his  name  was  enrolled  on  the  list  of  citi- 
zens and  he  was  free  to  attend  the  several  comitia.  On  a 
favorable  day  the  comitia  convened  by  order  of  the  mag- 
istrate. The  proper  sacrifices  were  made.  The  magis- 
trate made  known  the  purpose  of  the  assembly;  only  those 
could  speak  to  whom  he  gave  permission.  Each  citizen 
gave  his  vote  orally  in  the  group  to  which  he  belonged ;  the 
decision  of  the  majority  in  the  group  determined  its  vote, 
which  then  was  counted  as  one  in  determining  the  final 
vote  of  the  groups.  The  meeting  closed  before  sunset  and 
could  be  adjourned  by  the  magistrate  at  any  time,  should 
he  regard  the  omens  as  unfavorable.  The  citizen  was  con- 
stantly under  the  strict  surveillance  of  the  authorities. 
The  censor  (§  328)  examined  into  his  private  life  and 
punished  any  breaches  of  social  custom  by  fines  or  even 
suspension  from  civic  rights.  In  the  administration  of 
justice  he  appeared  before  judicial  officers,  such  as  the 
praetors;  no  lawyers  existed;  plaintiff  and  defendant 
must  plead  their  own  causes;  the  magistrate  acting  under 


Science  and  Art  297 

the  written  law  of  the  Twelve  Tables  interpreted  its  appli- 
cation and  issued  his  judgment.  An  appeal  might  be 
taken  to  the  comitia.  Private  persons  were  sometimes 
appointed  by  the  magistrate  to  hear  cases  and  give  de- 
cisions. Out  of  all  this  procedure  came  in  course  of 
time  the  body  of  public  and  private  law  which  is  one  of 
Rome's  chief  glories. 

354.  In  the  higher  ranges  of  art  and  science  we  must  science: 
not  expect  old  Rome  to  excel.     Its  science  was  practical  £*actical 
like  all  the  rest  of  its  works.     The  year  consisted  of  twelve  character, 
months ;  it  began  in  March.     The  days  of  the  month  were 
indicated  by  their  relation  to  the  moon's  changes.    The  day 
of  the  new  moon,  the  beginning  of  the  month,  was  called  The 
the  Kalends;*  the  day  of  the  full  moon,  the  middle  of  the  Calendan 
month,  the  Ides;  the  ninth  day  before  the  Ides  was  the 
Nones;  the  other  days  were  named  by  reckoning  from  these 
fixed  points.     All  the  days  of  the  year  were  given  a  special 
religious  significance,  either  good  or  bad.     Business  could 
be  done  only  on  the  good  days,  which  made  up  more  than 
two-thirds  of  the  year.     In  304  B.C.  a  calendar  on  which 
the  character  of  the  days  was  indicated  was  published. 
The  whole  arrangement  was  quite  imperfect.     In  archi-  Architect- 
tecture  the  most   characteristic  achievements  were  the  Ul 
roads,  the  bridges  and  the  aqueducts,  which  began  to  be 
built  on  a  grand  scale.     The  arch  had  a  great  history  at 
Rome.     The  chief  priesthood  had  a  name  which  connected 
it  with  bridge-building  (pontifices).     The  solidity  of  the 
Roman   character   was   already   reflected    in   the  archi- 
tecture.    In  decorative  and  plastic  art  but  a  few  begin-   other 
nings  had  been  made.    The  bronze  wolf  in  the  Forum  and 
the  bronze  Jupiter  of  the  Capitol  date  from  about  290  B.C.  ; 
*  Whence  comes  our  "  Calendar." 


298 


Union  of  Italy  under  Rome 


Literature. 


Morals 

and 

Religion. 


Sense  of 
Duty. 


Form  and 
Spirit  of 
Religion 


the  stone  sarcophagus  of  Scipio,  from  about  the  same 
period,  was  a  simple  but  strong  work.  A  beautiful  casket 
of  like  date  illustrates  as  do  the  other  works  of  art  the 
source  of  the  artistic  impulse;  Greeks  were  the  teachers 
of  Rome  in  these  things.  The  beginnings  of  painting 
belong  also  to  this  same  age.  Literature  was  even  less 
advanced.  The  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  constituted  the 
one  Roman  book.  Ballads  and  heroic  poems  in  a  rude 
metre  were  sung,  but  were  as  yet  unwritten.  Some  public 
records,  lists  of  magistrates,  religious  rituals  and  the  like — 
these  alone  constituted  the  barren  Roman  literature  of  the 
time. 

355.  The  rude,  severe  and  scrupulous  temper  of  the  old 
Roman  is  revealed  in  his  moral  standards  and  religious 
life.  Much  of  it  has  appeared  in  what  has  already  been 
told — the  power  of  the  father,  the  subordination  of  the 
individual  to  family  and  state,  the  exposure  of  new-born 
children,  the  position  of  the  slave  in  the  household,  a 
mere  unhuman  chattel.  In  its  worthiest  manifestation 
this  old  Roman  spirit  showed  itself  in  the  conviction  that 
everyone  had  his  place  and  work  in  the  community.  Let 
a  man  do  his  work  in  the  sphere  in  which  he  is  born ;  be  it 
father,  son  or  slave,  be  it  patron  or  client,  be  it  consul  or 
soldier  in  the  ranks — let  him  not  seek  to  be  above  his  place 
and  work  or  fall  beneath  it.  Religion  was  still  of  the  type 
which  has  been  described  (§§  314-315);  everywhere  the 
divine  powers  were  present  and  their  relations  to  man  were 
worked  out  in  greater  detail  and  their  favorable  action 
secured  by  complex  rituals.  Still  lived  the  profound  faith 
in  the  fidelity  of  the  gods  to  their  word  and  the  corre- 
sponding obligation  and  opportunity  of  man  to  do  his 
part  toward  them.  This  reaches  its  highest  point  in  the 


Appius   Claudius  299 

voluntary  self-sacrifice  of  the  individual  for  the  interest  of 
the  state — the  devotio,  as  it  was  called. 

In  a  decisive  battle  of  the  Samnite  war  the  consul,  Publius  De- 
cius  Mus,  saw  his  legions  broken  and  fleeing  before  the  enemy. 
Whereupon  he  called  to  himself  the  priest  and  charged  him  to  utter 
the  solemn  formula  whereby  a  victim  was  devoted.  The  words 
having  been  uttered,  he  cried  out  that  he  drove  before  him  fear  and 
fright,  slaughter  and  blood  and  the  wrath  of  gods  above  and  below, 
and  that  with  the  contagion  of  the  Furies,  ministers  of  death,  he 
infected  the  standards  and  the  arms  of  the  enemy.  With  this  curse, 
and  conscious  that,  like  his  fathers,  he  offered  himself  as  a  victim  to 
ward  off  the  peril  from  his  country,  he  spurred  forward  his  horse 
where  the  enemy's  force  was  thickest  and  found  death  at  the  points 
of  their  spears. 

356.  The  broadening  of  life,  as  this  period  draws  to  a  A  Type: 
close,  is  shown  in  one  of  the  famous  men  of  the  time,  Ap-  c^^ 
pius  Claudius,  the  censor.  It  was  he  who  built  the  first 
Roman  road,  the  Appian  Way,  which  led  southward  to 
Campania;  the  first  aqueduct,  likewise,  was  his  work. 
He  was  also  a  patron  of  letters;  to  him  are  ascribed 
written  speeches,  wise  maxims,  and  the  first  collection  of 
legal  decisions.  Even  the  study  of  grammar  looks  back 
to  him.  Other  men  followed  in  his  footsteps.  Rome, 
the  head  of  Italy,  rose  from  provincial  manners  and  cus- 
toms to  be  a  cosmopolitan  city.  She  was  at  the  turning 
of  the  ways.  Soon  Greek  learning  and  manners  would 
come  in  like  a  flood  and  the  old  Rome  disappear  forever. 

OUTLINE    FOR   REVIEW 
III.     THE   EMPIRE   OF  ROME 

1.  The  Making  of  Rome. 

2.  ROME'S  WESTERN  EMPIRE,     (i)  Rome's  defence  against  neighbors. 

(2)  Union  of  Italy  under  Rome.      Roman   Life  in  this  Epoch: 


300  The  Struggle  with  Carthage 

(a)  Occupations,  (b)  The  house,  (c)  Food  and  dress,  (d)  Amuse- 
ments, (e)  The  family.  (/)  Education,  (g)  Public  life,  (h)  Science. 
(i)  Art  and  literature.  (/)  Morals  and  religion,  (k)  Appius 
Claudius. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  What  light  on  Roman  life  is  thrown 
by  the  following:  pecunia;  toga  virilis;  devotio?  2.  What  is 
meant  by  denarius,  censor,  Kalends,  atrium,  nomen? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  the  Greek  (§§  176,  177) 
and  Roman  estimate  of  business  life.  2.  In  what  did  the  Ro- 
man idea  of  Amusement  differ  from  the  Greek  (§§  1 10, 1 18, 138, 
180, 183, 184,  186)  ?  3.  Compare  the  Roman  idea  of  the  Fam- 
ily with  the  Oriental  (§  25).  4.  Would  a  Greek  have  acted  as 
did  Decius  Mus  (§  355)  ?  State  reasons  for  or  against. 


(3)     THE  STRUGGLE  WITH   CARTHAGE  FOR 
THE  WESTERN  MEDITERRANEAN 

265-200  B.C. 

Roman  357.  Rome  was  now  head  of  the  Italian  land,  unifier 

bmtyTot"     anc*  Protector  °f  its  peoples.     But  this  high  position  in- 
itaiy.          volved  responsibility  (i)  for  the  defence  of  its  coasts  and 
(2)  for  the  protection  of  its  commerce.     Dangers  in  both 
Threaten-     of  these  directions  appeared  on  account  of  the  expansion 
s"onE0xfpan~    of  the  power  of  the  African  city,  Carthage.     The  founding 
Carthage.     of  Carthage  and  its  commercial  activity  in  the  western 
Mediterranean   have   already   been    mentioned   (§  323). 
North  Africa  as  far  as  the  Atlantic  was  under  its  authority, 
as  was  also  a  goodly  share  of  Sicily.     In  that  island  Car- 
thage had  waged  long  wars  with  the  Greeks  for  supremacy 
(§§  T54>  222>  282).     Its  ships  had  contested  the  trade  of 
the  Adriatic  Sea,  with  the  Greeks  of  Magna  Graecia  and 


The  Struggle  Inevitable  301 

were  found  in  every  port  of  the  west.  Corsica,  Sardinia 
and  portions  of  the  Spanish  peninsula  were  its  possessions; 
while  the  trade  of  all  Spain  was  in  its  hands.  Such 
commercial  influence  and  activity  brought  immense  wealth 
to  the  city,  and  for  centuries  had  given  it  easily  the  leading 
position  in  the  west. 

358.  As  long  as  Rome  was  an  inland  and  provincial  change  in 
city,  occupied  with  local  affairs,  interested  in  local  trade,  0flRo™* 
relations  with  Carthage  had  been  friendly.     Indeed,  when  and 
Italy  had  been  threatened  by  the  Greeks,  led  by  Pyrrhus  unavoid- 
(§  283),  Rome  and  Carthage  had  formed  an  alliance.    But  able' 
now  the  situation  was  changed.     Rome  had  taken  into 

its  possession  the  Greek  cities  of  Italy  and  was  bound  to 
protect  their  interests.  Thus  at  this  point  it  came  into 
touch  with  Carthage's  commercial  activity.  Nor  could 
Carthage,  on  its  part,  accept  willingly  a  limitation  of  its 
commerce.  It  is  indispensable  to  every  such  community 
to  enlarge  and  strengthen  its  trade.  The  one  region  re- 
maining in  the  west  which  could  thus  be  exploited  was 
Italy.  Accordingly,  it  is  not  strange  that  Carthaginian 
pressure  upon  the  Italian  peninsula  grew  greater  just  at 
the  moment  when  Rome's  duty  of  protecting  Italy  became 
clear  to  her  statesmen.  In  these  circumstances  a  conflict 
of  interests  leading  to  open  war  was  unavoidable. 

359.  The  occasion  that  opened  the  breach  was  insig-  siciiythe 
nificant.    Its  scene  was  the  contested  ground  of  Sicily,  fhep'ret 
There,  after  the  death  of  Agathocles  of  Syracuse  (§  282),  Breach- 
a  band  of  his  mercenaries,  calling  themselves  Mamertines 
("Sons  of  Mars"),  had  seized  Messana,  the  Sicilian  town 
nearest  Italy,  and  held  it  against  all  comers,  until,  wearied 

out  by  the  attacks  of  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse,  they  ap- 
pealed to  Rome.  While  the  appeal  was  being  considered, 


302  The  Struggle  with  Carthage 

the  Carthaginians  seized  the  town.     The  Romans  finally 
decided  to  help  the  Mamertines  and  despatched  a  force 


THE  PUNIC   WARS. 

tssjisssssijsgsj  Carthaginian  Dominion*. 
r     --.-•.•  i  Carthaginian   Dependencies 
-^— -  Hannibal's  Marc*. 


which  expelled   the   Carthaginian  garrison.    Thus  war 
with  Carthage  was  declared  (264  B.C.). 

The  First  360.  This  war,  called  the  First  Punic  *  War,  lasted  for 
^r'°  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century.  It  was  mostly  a  series  of 
naval  battles,  in  which  the  Greek  cities  of  Italy  furnished 
the  Romans  ships  and  sailors.  In  these  ships  Roman 
soldiers  stubbornly  contested  the  supremacy  of  the  sea  with 
the  fleets  of  Carthage.  Sicily  was  at  first  the  scene  of 
the  land  struggle,  until  the  Roman  consuls  crossed  over 

*" Punic"  is  a  form  of  "Phoenician."     Carthage  was  a  Phoenician 
or  Punic  colony. 


Carthage  in  Spain  303 

to  Africa,  where,  at  first  successful,  they  were  finally  de- 
feated disastrously  and  the  consul  Regulus  surrendered. 
Still  the  Romans  fought  on  by  sea  and  land,  year  after  The 
year,  until  a  great  victory  at  the  Agates  islands  (242  B.C.)  vktori^us. 
compelled  Carthage  to  ask  for  peace.     It  was  granted  on 
these  terms:  Carthage  retired  from  Sicily  and  the  islands 
between  Sicily  and  Italy;  she  promised  also  to  pay  during 
a  period  of  ten  years  3,200  talents  (241  B.C.). 

361.  But  the  strength  of  the  Punic  city  was  by  no  means  Both 
exhausted;  the  conflict  was  sure  to  break  out  again  when  p^^for 
time  and  resources  were  favorable  to  its  renewal.     Mean-  Breath, 
while  Carthage  had  to  suffer  a  further  humiliation  in  the 
seizure  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica  by  the  Romans  and  an 
additional  payment  of  1,200  talents  (238  B.C.).     Rome, 

also,  had  other  difficulties  on  hand  which  occupied  its  at- 
tention. The  Gauls  beyond  the  Po  were  causing  trouble 
and  a  war  of  several  years  followed,  which  resulted  in  the 
reduction  of  all  the  land  between  the  Alps  and  the  Apen- 
nines, the  district  called  Cisalpine  Gaul  (222  B.C.).  The 
annoyance  caused  by  Illyrian  pirates  to  Roman  commerce 
in  the  Adriatic  brought  on  the  Illyrian  war,  in  which  due 
punishment  was  inflicted  on  the  aggressors  and  friendly 
relations  established  with  the  Greek  states  (§  295). 

362.  The  occasion  for  the  second  struggle  with  Car-  The  Fume 
thage  appeared  in  an  unexpected  quarter.     One  of  the  JJJJ10 
most  skilful  Punic  generals,  Hamilcar,  surnamed  Barca 

("the  lightning"),  animated  by  an  inextinguishable 
hatred  for  Rome,  retired  to  Spain  after  the  first  Punic 
war  and  there  spent  nine  years  in  building  up  a  Carthagin- 
ian power  which  might  furnish  men  and  money  to  renew 
the  war  with  Rome.  After  his  death,  his  son  Hannibal, 
with  splendid  vigor  and  success,  carried  on  his  work.  Hannibal. 


304          The  Struggle  with  Carthage 


Punic 
War 


Hannibal 

Invades 

Italy. 


Hannibal 
in  Italy. 


The  wild  tribes  south  of  the  river  Ebro  were  tamed,  united 
and  organized  into  an  effective  fighting  force.  Money 
and  munitions  of  war  were  collected  and  a  plan  of  cam- 
paign, bold  beyond  all  expectation,  was  devised.  The 
first  step  precipitated  war.  Saguntum,  a  city  in  alliance 
with  Rome,  was  attacked  and  captured.  Then  with  an 
The  second  army  of  50,000  infantry  and  9,000  cavalry,  supported 
by  fighting  elephants,  Hannibal  marched  northward 
with  no  less  audacious  a  design  than  the  crossing  of  the 
Alps  and  the  descent  into  northern  Italy.  After  almost 
incredible  hardships,  through  fightings  with  wild  tribes 
and  the  fierceness  of  winter  storms  among  the  high  Alps, 
the  army,  reduced  to  less  than  half  its  number,  stood  ex- 
hausted, but  triumphant,  on  the  plains  of  Cisalpine  Gaul. 
363.  And  now  began  a  duel  to  the  death,  the  Second 
Punic  War  (218  B.C.).  The  fate  of  Rome  hung  on  the 

loyalty  of  the  al- 
lied cities  of  Italy. 
The  newly  con- 
quered Gauls  soon 
rose  and  flocked 
to  Hannibal.  The 
Roman  army  un- 
der  the  consuls 
was  routed  at  bat- 
tles on  the  banks 
of  the  rivers  Ti- 
cinus  and  the  Tre- 

bia.  The  next  year  (217  B.C.)  Hannibal,  advancing  south- 
ward, annihilated  another  Roman  army  at  Lake  Trasi- 
menus  in  Etruria;  the  consul  Flaminius  was  killed  in  the 
battle.  Then  the  Romans  in  alarm  appointed  Quintus 


Defeat  of 

Roman 

Armies. 


10°          Longitude    12' 


\     •        1 

'%••          !  ^ 

&      -     -<-:        :    .. 


-      States  Allied  with  Rome  j        |    , 

Colonial  Districts  LI 
fn^f\  Ager  Publlcus 

Hj^f      r*  "    Free  Sicilian  States 

(  I       MT^>  o..  Roman  Territory  1H 

V 


The  Crisis  of  Rome  305 

Fabius  Maximus  dictator.     He  would  not  give  battle,  but 
followed  on  the  heels  of  Hannibal  as  he  marched  down  to 
the  southeast  ravaging  the  country.    New  commanders,  the 
consuls  ^Smilius  Paulus  and  Terentius  Varro,  and  a  new 
and  great  army  of  more  than  80,000  men  marched  out  The  Dis- 
against  him  in  216  B.C.;  again  the  Romans  were  utterly  cannaf 
beaten  at  Cannae  in  Apulia;  one  consul,  Varro,  and  ten 
thousand  men  survived  the  slaughter. 

364.  Rome  now  appeared  on  the  verge  of  destruction.  The 
The  majority  of  the  Roman  allies  in  southern  Italy  passed  De^ 
over  to  Hannibal's  side — Capua  and  Tarentum  among 
the  rest.     In  Sicily,  Syracuse  and  its  dependencies  re- 
nounced the  Roman  alliance.     Hasdrubal,  the  brother  of 
Hannibal,  was  preparing  to  follow  his  brother  into  Italy. 
Philip  V  of  Macedonia   (§§  292,  295)  made  an  alliance 
with  Hannibal.     But  the  heroic  Roman  spirit  remained  Rome 
unshaken.    An  offer  of  peace  by  the  victor  of  Cannae  was  fnadn?he°n 
rejected.     Roman  generals   succeeded   in   keeping  Has-  Tide  Turns, 
drubal,  Hannibal's  brother,  occupied  in  Spain.    An  army 
sent  to  Syracuse  captured  that  city  and  restored  Roman 
power  in  Sicily.     War  was  declared  against  Philip.     En- 
ergetic efforts  were  put  forth  to  recover  the  rebellious 
Italian  cities,  while  further  pitched  battles  with  Hannibal 
were  avoided.     The  fortified  posts  occupied  by  Roman 
allies  all  over  the  land — the  Latin  colonies — held  firmly 
by   Rome.     Thus  gradually  the  sky  brightened,   while 
Hannibal's  task  grew  more  difficult.     He  lost  Capua  in 
211  B.C.,  and  a  dash  at  Rome  in  the  same  year  failed. 
Tarentum  was  taken  by  the  Romans  in  209  B.C.     The 
crisis  of  the  struggle  came  when  Hasdrubal,  eluding  the 
enemy  in  Spain,  started  for  Italy.     Already  Rome  was  near 
the  end  of  its  resources.     Twelve  Latin  colonies  announced 


306  The  Struggle  with  Carthage 

that  they  could  keep  up  the  struggle  no  longer.     If  the 
two  Carthaginian  armies  could  unite,  their  victory  was 
sure.  But  in  207  B.C.  the  army  of  Hasdrubal  was  destroyed 
The  at  the  river  Metaurus,  he  himself  killed,  and  his  head 

Metaurus.     ^nrown  over  j-ne  ramparts  of  his  brother's  camp.    As  Han- 
nibal looked  upon  it,  he  is  said  to  have  declared,  "  I  behold 
the  fate  of  Carthage."    Soon  his  diminishing  army  was  shut 
up  in  the  region  of  Bruttium.     Peace  was  made  between 
Rome  and  Philip.     Spain  fell  into  the  hands  of  Publius 
Cornelius  Scipio,  the  brilliant  young  Roman  general,  who 
later,  in  204  B.C.,  crossed  the  sea  with  an  army  to  carry  the 
Hannibal      war  into  Africa.     Hannibal  was  recalled  to  defend  his 
Recalled.      country  and  was  overthrown  by  Scipio  at  the  battle  of 
zama.         Zama  (202  B.C.).      The  war   was  over;    Carthage   was 
The  ruined,  and  nothing  was  left  but  to  seek  as  favorable  terms 

mentSof  of  peace  as  possible.  They  were  not  too  severe;  Spain  and 
Carthage,  the  Mediterranean  islands  were  given  up;  the  kingdom 
of  Numidia  was  granted  its  independence  under  King 
Massinissa,  and  war  upon  it  was  forbidden;  the  fleet  was 
destroyed;  a  payment  of  two  hundred  talents  yearly  for 
fifty  years  was  imposed.  Thus  Carthage,  while  not  de- 
stroyed, lost  its  political  and  commercial  supremacy  and 
became  little  more  than  a  dependency  of  Rome, 
causes  of  365.  In  view  of  the  prestige  and  power  possessed  by 
victory.  Carthage,  the  victory  of  Rome  is  remarkable,  and  its  causes 
worth  considering.  The  Roman  state,  but  just  formed 
out  of  a  variety  of  communities  not  yet  welded  together, 
crude  in  its  culture,  simple  in  manners  and  occupations 
— was  confronted  by  an  imperial  power  of  vast  wealth, 
splendid  traditions,  and  commercial  superiority,  its  armies 
led  by  the  ablest  military  genius  of  his  time,  perhaps  of  all 
ancient  times.  Yet  Rome  won.  The  victory  illustrates: 


Causes  of  Roman  Success  307 

1.  The  superiority  of  a  nation  of  small  farmers  to  a  Farmers 
nation  of  rich  capitalists.    The  bulk  of  the  Roman  territory  c^uiists 
was  divided  up  into  small  farms  cultivated  by  their  owners; 

the  Carthaginian  farms  were  vast  estates  cultivated  by 
slaves. 

2.  The  superiority  of  a  political  system  where  the  ma-  Democracy 
jority  are  citizens  actively  interested  in  the  carrying  on  of  oligarchy, 
the  state  (Roman  democracy)  to  one  in  which  a  small 
number  of  men  monopolize  public  affairs  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  majority  (Carthaginian  oligarchy). 

3.  The  superiority  of  armies  gathered  from  the  citizens  citizens 
and  animated  by  patriotism  to  those  hired  from  every  JJ^nary 
quarter  and  attached  by  love  of  money  and  plunder  or  Armies, 
admiration  for  an  individual  leader. 

4.  The  superiority  of  a  state  like  Rome  growing  slowly  A  state 
out  of  a  soil  native  to  it  and  attaching  to  itself,  by  bonds  J**™  a 
of  citizenship  and  alliance,   the  cities  and  states  round  state  For- 
about  it  to  a  state  like  Carthage,  whose  founders  came  from  sS. t0 
abroad  and  planted  it  on  foreign  soil,  where  it  ruled  over 

an  alien  population,  seeking  only  to  exploit  them  in  the 
interest  of  its  commerce.  The  latter  can  be  more  easily 
torn  up  than  the  former,  the  roots  of  which  spread  far  and 
wide  and  go  down  deep.  The  Roman  state  was  a  unity, 
pervaded  by  a  common  life;  Carthage  was  a  unity,  arti- 
ficially held  together  by  external  forces,  such  as  strong 
armies,  shrewd  rulers,  great  wealth,  brilliant  generals, 
class  interests  rather  than  public  welfare. 

366.  During  this  long  struggle  with  a  foreign  enemy  The  Roman 
the  administration  of  the  Roman  state  underwent  some 
changes.     We  have  seen  that  the  political  strife  of  patrician 
and  plebeian  had  ended  in  the  victory  of  the  latter  and  the 
harmonizing  of  all  interests  in   a  popular  government 


308  The  Struggle  with  Carthage 


Growth  of 
the 

Senate's 
Power. 


The 

Financial 
Adminis- 
tration. 


The  Prob- 
lem of 
Conquered 
Territories. 


(§§  337-339)-  But  when  war  with  Carthage  came,  it  was 
found  that  a  strong  administration  was  necessary  to  con- 
duct it.  The  citizens,  therefore,  let  the  senate  manage 
affairs,  since  it  was  a  compact  body  of  the  best  men  in 
the  state  and  was  always  at  hand  in  Rome  on  critical 
occasions.  Thus  the  senate  slowly  absorbed  the  powers 
of  government,  which,  in  theory,  belonged  to  the  people. 
The  magistrates,  although  elected  by  the  people,  were 
guided  by  the  senate  and  fulfilled  its  will.  This  was  to 
mean  much  in  the  future,  but  at  present  it  worked  suc- 
cessfully. The  firmness  and  courage  with  which  the 
senate  went  about  its  task  of  carrying  on  the  war,  supply- 
ing soldiers,  encouraging  the  people,  resisting  all  appeals 
for  peace  until  the  work  was  done,  is  worthy  of  all  praise. 

367.  Its  solution  of  two  problems  is  noteworthy.     To 
procure  money  and  supplies  for  carrying  on  the  war  it 
adopted  a  curious  plan.     Instead  of  organizing  a  financial 
system  of  its  own,  it  sought  the  aid  of  wealthy  capitalists 
and  merchants  and  gave  the  task  into  their  hands.     They 
supplied  the  money,  the  ships,  the  food,  the  equipment 
The  state  was  thus  relieved  from  a  great  burden  of  busi- 
ness; but  this  relief  was  dearly  bought  by  bringing  the  state 
into  bondage  to  these  men  of  wealth.     As  their  operations 
widened,  the  dependence  of  the  administration  upon  them 
increased.    They  began  to  have  an  undue  influence  in 
shaping  its  policy.    They  made  the  state  serve  their  in- 
terests.* 

368.  The  other  problem  was  the  relation  of  the  newly 
won  territories  outside  of  Italy  to  the  Roman  state.     We 
have  seen  that,  in  bringing  Italy  under  Roman  rule,  either 

*Such  men  were  called  Publicani,  "contractors,"  whence  our  word 
"publican." 


The  Provincial  System  309 

the  peoples  had  been  made  Roman  citizens  or  their  rela- 
tions had  been  determined  by  a  treaty  (§  342).  But  when, 
at  the  close  of  the  first  Punic  war,  Sicily  and  Sardinia  be- 
came Roman,  neither  of  these  methods  was  adopted,  but  a 
consul  or  a  praetor  (§  324)  was  placed  in  charge  of  them. 
This  kind  of  authority,  that  of  a  military  magistrate  deal- 
ing with  conquered  peoples,  was  called  provincia,  a  name  The 
which  was  also  given  to  the  territory  thus  governed.  The  Provmce- 
praetor  maintained  order  and  rendered  justice  in  the 
province;  his  authority  was  sustained  by  a  body  of  Roman 
soldiers.  By  this  means  no  new  magistrates  were  appointed 
nor  any  new  authority  created  by  the  Roman  administra- 
tion. The  plan  worked  well  enough  for  a  temporary  ex- 
pedient, but  the  dangers  of  giving  the  unlimited  authority 
of  a  military  magistrate  to  the  governor  of  conquered  ter- 
ritories soon  became  clear  as  Rome's  conquests  extended. 
Of  these  we  shall  hear  in  the  coming  years. 

369.  The  year  200  B.C.  saw  Rome  the  ruler  of  the  west-  Rome 
ern  Mediterranean.    The  regions  that  had  been  dominated  *ult"e 
by  Carthage — North  Africa,  Spain,  Sicily,  and  the  other  West- 
islands — passed  under  Roman  sway.     The  city,  which 
had  successfully  united  Italy  and  held  it  firm  against  the 
terrific  assaults  of  Hannibal,  had  now  a  larger  task,  the 
ruling  of  the  west.     Its  imperial  destiny  was  becoming 
clearer.     The  questions  which  now  pressed  for  solution 
were  such  as  these:  Was  Rome's  dominion  to  be  limited  New 
to  the  west?     Could  Rome  succeed  in  uniting  and  gov-  Problemii 
erning  its  Empire,  as  it  had  succeeded  with  Italy?    In 
these  new  imperial  tasks  was  Rome  itself  to  remain  un- 
changed ?  These  questions  were  soon  to  have  their  answer. 


310  The  Struggle  with  Carthage 


OUTLINE    FOR   REVIEW 
III.    THE    EMPIRE    OF    ROME 

1.  The  Making  of  Rome. 

2.  ROME'S  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

(i)  Rome's  defence  against  neighbors.  (2)  Union  of  Italy  under 
Rome.  (3)  The  Struggle  with  Carthage  for  the  western  Medi- 
terranean (265-200  B.C.).  Conflict  with  Carthage  unavoidable — its 
occasion — first  Punic  war — the  interval — rise  of  Hannibal — second 
Punic  war  (invasion  of  Italy,  Roman  defeats,  the  crisis,  recall  of 
Hannibal,  Carthage  beaten) — causes  of  Rome's  victory  (compari- 
sons)— growth  of  power  of  senate  during  the  war — the  finances — 
provincial  administration — summary. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  are  the  following  noted: 
Agathocles,  Regulus,  Fabius  Maximus,  Philip  V,  Zama,  Me- 
taurus?  2.  Name  in  order  the  battles  of  the  second  Punic  war. 
3.  What  is  meant  by  praetor,  quaestor,  censor,  provincia,  punic, 
Latin  colony,  allied  state?  4.  What  was  the  duration  of  this 
period  (dates)  and  how  much  of  it  was  taken  up  with  the  wars 
with  Carthage? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  the  Roman  province 
with  the  provinces  of  Egypt  (§  45),  Assyria  (§§  72,  77)  and 
Persia  (§87).  2.  Compare  Hannibal's  invasion  of  Italy  with 
the  Persian  invasion  of  Greece  (§§  143, 147-15^).  3.  "Success 
is  in  no  way  necessary  to  greatness."  Does  Hannibal's  career 
justify  this  assertion? 

TOPICS     FOR     READING     AND     ORAL     REPORT.     1.  The 

Carthaginian  Empire.  West,  pp.  313-315;  Shuckburgh,  pp. 
223-232;  Myres,  pp.  149-152;  Horton,  pp.  60-63;  How  and 
Leigh,  pp.  143-149-  2.  The  First  Punic  War.  Shuckburgh, 
chs.  18,  19;  How  and  Leigh,  ch.  18.  3.  The  Second  Punic 
War.  Shuckburgh,  chs.  22-25;  Myres,  chs.  16-18;  How  and 
Leigh,  chs.  21,  22.  4.  The  Story  of  Regulus.  Seignobos,  pp. 
92-93.  5.  Hannibal's  March  to  Italy.  Laing,  pp.  362-373 
(source);  Munro,  pp.  85-86  (source);  Horton,  pp.  78-81.  6. 
The  Battle  of  Cannae.  Laing,  pp.  372-380  (source) ;  Morey,  pp. 
117,  118;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  323-328;  How  and  Leigh,  pp.  194- 
198.  7.  Fabius  Maximus.  Plutarch's  Life  of  Fabius.  S.Han- 


Significance  of  200  B.C.  311 

nibal  as  a  Man.  Laing,  pp.  360—362  (source);  How  and  Leigh, 
pp.  171,  172;  Seignobos,  p.  99.  9.  Hannibal  as  a  General: 
His  Strategy  (a)  at  Trebia,  (b)  at  Ticinus,  (c)  at  Trasimene, 
(d)  at  Cannae— see  the  histories  as  referred  to  above.  10.  The 
Roman  Provincial  System.  Abbott,  pp.  88-91;  Horton,  ch. 
14;  Morey,  pp.  146-148. 


3.— ROME'S    EASTERN    EMPIRE 

200-44  B.C. 

370.  The  year  200  B.C.  marks  the  moment  when  the  PRELIMI- 
separate  stream  of  Roman  History  merges  into  the  main  SURVEY 
current  of  the  larger  history  of  the  world  of  the  east.     How 
rich  and  splendid  in  its  culture  that  Greek  world  had  be- 
come and  how  disorganized,  selfish  and  brutal  in  its  poli- 
tics has  already  been  described  (§§  274,  278,  294).     On 
the  ruins  of  Alexander's  dream  of  universal  empire  had 
sprung  up  the  kingdoms  of  Macedonia,  Syria  and  Egypt,  The 
united  in  culture  and  ideals  of  empire,  but  each  warring  JjJJJ^ 
or  intriguing  against  the  others  in  the  endeavor  to  realize 
in  itself  alone  this  common  ideal.     Rome's  progress,  at 
first  only  indirectly  connected  with  the  eastern  world,  had 
steadily  moved  in  the  direction  of  closer  relations  (§  295). 
Hardly  had  the  conflict  with  Carthage  been  won,  when 
a  war  broke  out  with  Macedonia.     Thus  Rome  was  in-  Rome 
volved  directly  with  the  politics  of  the  east  and  could  not  E^JIJ* 
call  a  halt  until  the  kingdoms  of  Macedonia,  Syria  and  **«  East 
Egypt,  with  the  lesser  powers  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor, 
became  either  subjects  or  allies  of  Rome.     Thus  was  cre- 
ated an  Empire  around  the  Mediterranean  sea,  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Euphrates  river.     This  splendid  conquer- 


312 


Rome's  Eastern  Empire 


wars  of 


Overthrow 
Philip  v 


Greece 

Made  Free. 


war  with 
syna. 


ing  career  with  its  effects  on  Roman  life  we  are  now  to 
follow  in  detail. 

371.  The  war  with  Philip  V  of  Macedonia  that  followed 
^s  alnance  witn  Hannibal  was  brought  to  an  end  in  205 
B.C.  by  a  treaty  of  peace,  that  was  hardly  more  than  a 
temporary  truce.     Philip,  however,  was  the  first  to  violate 
it  by  attacking  Roman  allies  in  Greece  and  the  east;  the 
Romans  were  not  slow  to  respond  by  a  declaration  of  war 
(2oo  B.C.).     The  chief  powers  of  Greece,  the  ^Etolian  and 
Achaean  Leagues  (§§  280,  292),  joined  with  them.     After 
two    ineffectual   years,  Titus  Quinctius  Flamininus  led 
the  Roman  legions  to  victory  at  the  battle  of  Cynosceplv 
alas    (197  B.C.),  in  Thessaly,  where  against  the  Roman 
maniples  the  Macedonian  phalanx  as  a  fighting  machine 
was  found  wanting.     Philip  obtained  peace  at  the  price 
of  becoming  a  dependent  ally  of  Rome,  losing  all  ter- 
ritory outside  of  Macedonia  and  paying  1,000  talents. 
As  for  Greece  itself,  the  Romans  declared  its  several  states 
to  ^  henceforth,  independent  of  Macedonian  authority, 
which  had  been  imposed  on  Greece  since  the  battle  of 
Chaeroneia  (§  250).     All  Greece  was  free  once  more  to 
work  out  its  own  salvation.     Rome  had  no  desire  to  inter- 
fere with  its  affairs  and  would  see  to  it  that  no  other  power 
did  so. 

372.  Antiochus  III,  king  of  Syria,  however,  viewed  with 
increasing  disfavor  the  appearance  of  Rome  in  the  east. 
Roman  influence  opposed  him  in  Egypt  and  on  the  coasts 
of  Asia  Minor.      To  him  Hannibal  had  fled  after  the 
fall  of  Carthage  and  kept  his  anger  hot.     Now,  upon  the 
overthrow  of  Macedonia,  a  suitable  time  seemed  to  him 
to  have  come  to  assert  his  supremacy  over  Greece.     On 
the  invitation  of  the  ^Etolian  League  he  entered  Greece 


Rome  and  Macedonia  313 

(192  B.C.).  But  in  the  next  year  he  was  defeated  and  Antiochus 
driven  out.  The  following  year  (190  B.C.)  the  Roman  D*feated 
army  under  Lucius  Cornelius  Scipio,  the  consul,  who  was 
aided  by  his  brother,  the  victor  of  Zama,  crossed  into  Asia 
Minor  and  overthrew  the  army  of  Antiochus  at  Magnesia. 
The  proud  king  made  a  humiliating  peace,  resigned  his 
possessions  in  Europe  and  Asia  Minor  and  paid  a  fine  of 
15,000  talents.  His  defeat  meant  the  surrender  of  Hanni- 
bal, but  the  great  general  escaped,  only  to  flee  from  place 
to  place  until,  in  183  B.C.,  he  ended  his  own  life  by  poison. 
The  territories  taken  from  Antiochus  were  handed  over 
to  loyal  allies;  Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamum,  received 
a  large  share,  and  his  kingdom  became,  along  with  Rhodes, 
a  bulwark  of  Roman  influence  in  the  East. 

373.  Eighteen  years  passed  quietly  when,  in  171  B.C.,  Third 
war  broke  out  a  third  time  in  Macedonia.     Philip  had  ^*™~n 
been  followed  by  his  son  Perseus,  who  succeeded  in  gain-  war. 
ing  a  number  of  Greek  states  to  unite  with  him  in  resisting 
Rome.     They  felt  that  freedom  under  Roman  patronage 
was  not  real  freedom.     But  Perseus  was  not  the  man  to 
offer  a  vigorous  resistance;  in  168  B.C.  he  was  defeated 
by  Lucius  ^milius  Paulus  at  Pydna,  where  again  the  Pydna. 
Macedonian  phalanx  was  shattered.     The  king  fled  with 
his  treasure,  but  was  captured;  an  immense  booty  was 
brought  to  Rome,  where  Paulus  enjoyed  the  most  splendid 
"  triumph"  (§  344)  that  the  city  had  ever  seen.    The  state 
treasury  was  filled  so  full  that  the  regular  tax  upon  the 
citizens  was  remitted  and  was  not  again  imposed  for  more 
than  a  century.     Macedonia  was  divided  into  four  sep-  settlement 
arate  independent  districts  allied  to  Rome;  the  free  states  ^ 

Macedonia 

of  Greece  were  severely  dealt  with.     The  rebellious  leagues  «nd  Greece, 
of  ^Etolia  and  Bceotia  were  dissolved.      The  Achaean 


Rome's  Eastern  Empire 

League,  which  had  stood  loyal,  had  to  send  one  thousand 
of  its  leading  citizens  to  Rome,  where  they  were  unjustly 
detained  in  practical  exile  for  many  years.  Among  them 
was  Polybius,  who  afterward  wrote  a  history  of  Rome. 
Even  the  loyal  allies  of  Rome  in  the  east,  Pergamum  and 
Rhodes,  were  treated  harshly. 

374.  The  next  twenty  years  (168-149  B-C0  snow  Rome 
at  a  standstill  in  eastern  affairs.    All  the  eastern  powers 
hung  upon  the  word  of  the  senate,  and  their  ambassadors 

The  thronged  the  senate-house.     During  these  years  the  Jews 

arfupris-"  burst  ou^  m  rebellion  against  Antiochus  IV  of  Syria 
ing  in  because  he  had  violated  the  sanctity  of  their  temple  and 
trampled  upon  their  sacred  law.  Led  by  the  valiant  fam- 
ily called  the  Maccabees,  they  heroically  and  successfully 
fought  off  the  Syrian  armies  and  sought  the  aid  of  Rome, 
who  made  a  treaty  with  them,  but  gave  no  actual  help. 
At  last  they  secured  their  independence  in  143  B.C.,  under 
Simon  Maccabaeus,  and  set  up  a  kingdom  ruled  by  mem- 
bers of  his  family.  The  greater  and  lesser  powers  of  the 
East  were  falling  into  decay.  The  Greek  states  intrigued 
and  squabbled.  The  kingdoms  of  Syria  and  Egypt  were 
rent  by  internal  quarrels.  Rome  stood  grimly  by  and 
waited,  vexed  by  the  continual  appeals  for  her  aid,  yet 
unready  to  take  active  steps  for  interference. 

375.  Thus  far  Rome  had  been  drawn  on  into  the  affairs 
of  the  east  with  hesitation  and  uncertainty.     The  troubles 

The  with  Macedonia  and  Syria  had  not  been  of  her  making; 

Attitude       s^e  had   avoided  responsibility  wherever    possible;    the 

toward  the    conquered  lands  had  not  been  absorbed,  but  left  as  de- 

Powers.       pendents  or  allies.     Moreover,  the  weaker  powers  were 

constantly  seeking  her  aid  or  protection  against  their  more 

powerful  and  aggressive  neighbors.     In  this  Greek  world 


.3  S  § 
* 


f     u 

si  I 

'is   «s 
JMI 


w    . 

c«Si5  .      O 

ff    inn  s 


111 


in 


How  the  Jews  Regarded  Rome       315 

of  unending  strife  and  discord,  of  intrigue  and  political 
corruption,    the   straightforward,   simple,  upright,  sober 
Roman  was  welcomed  as  a  friend  and  deliverer  by  all  who 
looked  in  vain  for  protection  or  justice  from  the  greedy 
and  brutal  powers  by  whom  they  were  surrounded.     His 
presence  meant  the  end  of  strife,  the  repression  of  the  proud, 
the  revival  of  prosperity,  the  reign  of  peace.     How  the  Attitud. 
Romans  were  looked  upon  by  the  lesser  peoples  of  the  east  JJJJ1* 
is  strikingly  shown  by  a  passage  from  one  of  the  Jewish  *°™rd 
books  of  the  time.    When  the  Jews  were  making  their  des- 
perate fight  for  independence  they  looked  about  for  helpers. 
The  first  Book  of  Maccabees  says: 

And  Judas  heard  of  the  fame  of  the  Romans,  that  they  are  valiant 
men,  and  have  pleasure  in  all  that  join  themselves  unto  them,  with 
their  friends  and  such  as  relied  upon  them  they  kept  amity;  and 
they  conquered  the  kingdoms  that  were  nigh  and  those  that  were 
far  off,  and  all  that  heard  of  their  fame  were  afraid  of  them;  more- 
over, whomsoever  they  will  to  succor  and  to  make  kings,  these  do 
they  make  kings;  and  whomsoever  they  will,  do  they  depose;  and 
they  are  exalted  exceedingly:  and  for  all  this  none  of  them  ever  did 
put  on  a  diadem,  neither  did  they  clothe  themselves  with  purple,  to 
be  magnified  thereby:  and  how  they  had  made  for  themselves  a 
senate-house,  and  day  by  day  three  hundred  and  twenty  men  sat 
in  council,  consulting  alway  for  the  people,  to  the  end  that  they  might 
be  well  ordered;  and  how  they  commit  their  government  to  one  man 
year  by  year,  that  he  should  rule  over  them,  and  be  lord  over  all  their 
country,  and  all  are  obedient  to  that  one,  and  there  is  neither  envy 
nor  emulation  among  them. — i  Maccabees,  viii,  i,  12-16. 

376.  As  time  went  on,  however,  the  temper  of  the  Ro-  Rome 
mans  slowly  changed.    They  could  not  understand  the  ^Je§ 
politics  of  the  East  nor  the  character  of  its  peoples.    They  »ts  Attitude 
despised  the  cunning  and  weakness  of  the  Orientals;  they  worse! 
were  constantly  disturbed  by  the  quarrels  and  intrigues 


Rome's  Eastern  Empire 


Overthrow 
of  Greek 
Freedom. 


Destruc- 
Carthage. 


Disturb- 
ances in 
Spain. 


Viriathus. 


of  the  various  states  and  by  outbreaks  against  their  own 
authority.  The  opportunities  for  gaining  wealth  and  in- 
fluence afforded  by  the  decay  of  the  eastern  powers  at- 
tracted them.  Thus  they  came  to  interfere  more  and 
more  directly,  to  make  an  unrighteous  use  of  their  superior 
position  and  power  in  enforcing  obedience  to  their  will; 
they  became  grasping  and  arrogant,  until,  in  place  of  the 
respect  and  hope  which  they  had  once  inspired,  the  Ori- 
entals began  to  fear  and  hate  them. 

377.  Things  came  to  a  head  in  Greece  by  a  rebellion 
in  the  Macedonian  districts  (148  B.C.),  followed  by  troubles 
with  the  Achaean  League   (146  B.C.).     Macedonia  was 
made  a  province;    the  Achaean  League  was  dissolved; 
Greece  was  placed  under  the  authority  of  the  governor  of 
Macedonia.    In  connection  with  the  subjection  of  Greece, 
the  city  of  Corinth  was  sacked  and  burned  and  its  art 
treasures  carried  to  Rome.   Thus  Greek  freedom  perished, 
but  Roman  honor  and  faith  were  sadly  smirched  in  the 
process. 

378.  During  these  years  the  Roman  name  was  stained 
by  another  act  of  oppression.     Taking  advantage  of  cir- 
cumstances which  looked  like  rebellion,  the  senate  found 
a  pretext  for  making  war  on  Carthage  and,  in  spite  of  its 
heroic  resistance,  destroyed  the  city,  enslaved  the  surviv- 
ing inhabitants  and  formed  out  of  the  conquered  territory 
the  province  of  Africa  (149-146  B.C.).    In  Spain  the  wanton 
injustice  and  aggression  of  Roman  governors  kept  the  land 
continually  in  uproar.     Fierce  wars  were  waged  with  the 
various  tribes.       An   heroic   defender  of   Spanish  free- 
dom arose  in  Viriathus,  who  for  nine  years  (149-140  B.C.) 
not  only  kept  the  Romans  at  bay,  but  defeated  their  gen- 
erals, and  was  finally  disposed  of  by  assassination.     Ro- 


The  Roman  Domain  in  133  B.C.      317 


man  supremacy  in  Spain  was  not  secured  till  133  B.C.  The 
same  year  (133  B.C.)  the  king  of  Pergamum,  the  faithful 
ally  of  Rome  in 
the  east,  died,  be- 
queathing  his 
state  to  the  Ro- 
man people.  Out 
of  it  was  made  the 
province  of  Asia. 
379.  Thus,  by 
133  B.C.,  Rome 
ruled  at  least 
seven  provinces, 
Sicily,  Sardinia 
(including  Corsi- 
c  a ) ,  Spain  (di- 
vided into  two), 
Macedonia,  Afri- 
ca and  Asia.* 
Strong  colonies 
dominated  Cisal- 
pine Gaul,  though 
it  had  not  yet  re- 
ceived a  provincial  organization.  The  rapid  growth  of  her 
foreign  domains  had  made  it  impossible  for  Rome  to  alter 
the  original  temporary  form  of  government  given  to  them 
(§  368);  it  now  became  permanent.  In  place  of  the  con- 
suls and  praetors,  who  were  sufficiently  occupied  at  home, 
the  government  of  the  province  was  assigned  to  citizens 
on  whom  was  conferred  the  same  authority  as  that  of  a 

*  Illyricum  was  probably  also  a  province  at  this  time,  but  the  date  is 
uncertain. 


318  Rome's  Eastern  Empire 

consul  or  a  praetor  and  who  acted  in  the  place  of  *  these 
The  officials.      Hence  they  were  called  pro-consuls  or  pro- 

praetors, and  were  usually  the  consuls  or  praetors  of  the  year 
The  preceding.     A  kind  of  constitution  was  established  for 

conTtit"-1     eacn  province,  determining  such  matters  as  the  tribute  to 
*on-  be  paid,  the  status  of  the  different  communities  in  the  prov- 

ince and  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  provincials.  The 
Roman  peace  was  made  binding;  provincials  could  not 
bear  arms;  commercium  and  connubium  (§  342)  between 
the  different  communities  were  at  first  prohibited;  a  large 
amount  of  local  self-government  was  allowed.  The  au- 
thority of  the  proconsul  was  wide,  limited  only  by  the  terms 
of  the  provincial  constitution;  his  obligations  were  equally 
extensive.  He  administered  justice,  preserved  the  peace, 
through  a  quaestor  he  directed  the  finances  and  saw  to 
the  tribute;  he  was  responsible  for  the  prosperity  and 
progress  of  his  province.  The  collection  of  the  taxes 
was,  according  to  the  accepted  Roman  system  (§  367), 
taken  over  by  a  contractor,  the  publicanus,  who  assumed 
the  responsibility  of  paying  to  the  state  the  amount  it  re- 
quired, and  made  a  profit  out  of  what  he  could  squeeze 
from  the  unhappy  provincials  over  and  above  the  legal 
tribute.  This  "  farming  out "  of  the  taxes  was,  thus, 
weakness  capable  of  serious  abuse.  The  success  of  such  a  system 
system.  depended  upon  the  character  of  the  governor,  since,  left 
practically  alone  with  powers  so  large,  he  could  carry  out 
his  own  will  without  interference.  Appointed  for  but  one 
year,  all  that  he  could  accomplish  for  good  or  ill  must  be 
done  in  this  brief  time.  It  was  not  strange,  therefore,  that 
some  of  them  yielded  to  temptations  to  be  unjust,  selfish 
and  cruel.  In  149  B.C.  it  became  necessary  to  establish  a 

*  The  Latin  word  for  "in  the  place  of"  is  pro. 


Weakness  of  the  Provincial  System    319 

court  at  home  where  such  injustice  could  be  brought  to 
trial.  But,  as  the  accused  could  not  be  tried  till  his  term 
of  office  was  over,  and  as  the  court  was  made  up  of  senators 
who  either  had  been  or  might  become  governors  of  prov- 
inces, the  remedy  was  of  little  avail. 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 
III.     THE   EMPIRE   OF   ROME 

I.  The  Making  of  Rome.     2.  Rome's  Western  Empire. 

3.  ROME'S  EASTERN  EMPIRE.  Preliminary  Survey :  Overthrow  of 
Philip  V — deliverance  of  Greece — overthrow  of  Antiochus  III — 
overthrow  of  Perseus — settlement  of  Macedonia  and  Greece — Rome 
and  the  East :  good  period  (Maccabsean  uprising,  chaos  in  the 
East,  Roman  diplomacy  in  the  East,  testimony  of  Jews) — growth 
of  cruelty  and  selfishness  (Greek  freedom  destroyed,  Carthage 
perishes,  Spanish  wars) — Rome's  provincial  domain  in  133  B.C.— 
the  governors,  the  constitution,  weak  sides  of  the  system. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  Significance  of  the  events  connected 
with  Cynoscephalse,  Pydna,  Magnesia.  2.  For  what  are  the 
following  famous:  Viriathus,  Simon  Maccabaeus,  Polybius? 
3.  What  is  meant  by  Proconsul,  Achaean  League,  Phalanx, 
Kingdom  of  Syria,  Empire  of  Alexander? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  Rome's  advance  into 
the  East  with  Alexander's  (§§  255,  263,  265).  2.  How  far  was 
the  Jewish  praise  of  the  Romans  (§  375)  justified  in  the  past 
history  of  the  Romans?  3.  Compare  the  Greek  Phalanx  and 
the  Roman  Legion.  4.  "I  count  it  glory  not  to  possess 
wealth  but  to  rule  those  who  do."  Show  how  this  reveals  the 
strength  and  the  weakness  of  the  Roman  character. 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  The 
East  about  200  B.C.  Morey,  pp.  125-127;  How  and  Leigh, 
pp.  253-260;  Shuckburgh,  ch.  27.  2.  The  First  and  Second 
Macedonian  Wars.  Plutarch,  Life  of  Flamininus;  Botsford, 
pp.  116-118;  Myres,  ch.  20;  How  and  Leigh,  pp.  261-265; 
Shuckburgh,  ch.  28.  3.  The  War  with  Antiochus.  Myres, 
ch.  21.  4.  The  Third  Macedonian  War.  Myres,  ch.  22;  Horton 


320 


Rome's  Eastern  Empire 


pp.  145-158;  How  and  Leigh,  pp.  275-280;  Shuckburgh,  ch. 
31;  Seignobos,  pp.  126-130.  5.  The  Life  of  Scipio  Africanus 
(see  Index  to  How  and  Leigh  or  Shuckburgh,  under  his  name). 

6.  Change  in  Roman  Policy  toward  the  East.    Seignobos,  pp. 
130-131;  Morey,  p.  134;  West,  pp.  336-339;  Wolfson,  p.  325. 

7.  The  End  of  Greek  Freedom.  Myres,  pp.  285-280;  How  and 
Leigh,  pp.  283-287.     8.  The  Fall  of  Carthage.   Myres,  pp.  289- 
297;  Botsford,  pp.  123-126;  Seignobos,  pp.  131-135;  Horton, 
pp.  165-168. 


changes  in  380.  This  extension  in  Rome's  foreign  relations,  by 
inner  Life  which  she  came  to  take  the  leading  part  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean world,  was  accompanied  by  a  remarkable  series 
of  changes  in  her  inner  life.  The  whole  process  resulted 
in  the  transformation  of  the  state.  Before  proceeding 
to  follow  the  next  steps  in  this  transformation,  we  stop  to 
study  the  internal  changes  which  had  so  large  a  part  in 
bringing  it  about.*  Two  things  were  chiefly  responsible 
for  these  changes  in  Rome;  one  was  the  growth  of  capi- 
talism or  money-power,  the  other  the  incoming  of  Graeco- 
Oriental  civilization.  Working  separately  or  in  unison  they 
affected  every  phase  of  Roman  public  and  private  life. 

381.  Capitalism  appeared  as  the  outcome  of  a  process 
which  quite  altered  the  chief  occupations  of  Roman  citi- 
zens. In  this  process  agriculture,  once  the  prevailing 
Italian  activity,  first  changed  its  form  and  finally  ceased 
to  be  of  importance.  The  peasant  proprietor  of  a  small 
The  Farmer  holding  disappeared.  The  rural  free  laborer  gave  way  to 
the  slave.  The  second  Punic  war  had  devastated  wide 
regions  and  impoverished  many  farmers.  The  new  prov- 
inces sent  in  great  quantities  of  grain  which  the  govern- 
ment distributed  at  a  cheap  rate.  Italian  grain  raisers 

*  The  order  of  the  topics  treated  will  be  in  the  main  the  same  as  that  in 
§§  345~356>  thus  making  comparison  easier. 


Causes. 


Occupa- 
tions. 


Disappears. 


The  Reign  of  Capital  321 

could  not  compete  with  this;  a  bad  season  brought  them 
to  ruin.  Thus  their  land  went  into  the  hands  of  capital- 
ists who  organized  great  estates,  manned  them  with  cheap  Rise  of 
slave  labor  and  used  them  for  the  pasturage  of  vast  flocks  ^tates 
and  herds,  or  turned  them  into  vineyards  and  olive  groves. 
Industry  and  manufacturing  might  have  offered  occupa- 
tion for  these  farmers,  but  the  competition  of  foreign  work- 
ers forbade.  The  well-developed  industrial  life  of  the 
east  (§§  19,  174),  which  had  now  fallen  under  Roman 
influence,  was  far  superior  to  anything  that  Italy  had  de- 
veloped. Roman  policy  directed  it  all  into  Rome  by  for- 
bidding commercium  and  connubium  among  the  prov- 
inces. Such  manufacturing  as  existed  at  Rome  was  done 
by  slave  labor.  Rome  became  not  a  producer  of  goods, 
but  the  centre  where  goods  were  exchanged;  the  Roman 
merchant  flourished  on  business  which  he  had  not  created. 
His  chief  commodity  was  money.  Banking  became  a  Money 
favorite  occupation,  the  possession  and  investment  of  Banking, 
capital  the  main  element  in  Roman  business  life.  The 
foundation  of  great  fortunes  was  laid ;  the  Roman  capital- 
ist took  his  place  as  one  of  the  powers  of  the  time  and 
reached  out  to  control  the  world's  affairs. 

382.  This  era  of  capitalism  brought  with  it  a  sharp  di-  Social 
vision  of  social  classes.     Already  the  old  equality  and  Sarpene 
unity  of  Roman  life  had  been  threatened  by  the  distinc- 
tions conferred  by  office  and  wealth  (§  339).     In  place  of 
the  patrician   aristocracy  had   appeared  a  "nobility,"*  The 
whose  position  was  gained  by  these  means.     The  mem-  Noblllty- 

*  A  citizen  who  held  a  "curule"  office  thereby  ennobled  his  family  and 
won  for  them  the  right  of  placing  wax  masks  representing  the  features  of 
distinguished  ancestors  in  the  atrium  and  of  exhibiting  them  at  public 
funerals  of  members  of  the  family.  Such  families  were  nobiles. 


322  Rome's  Eastern  Empire 

bers  of  these  noble  families  came  to  regard  themselves  as 
alone  capable  of  filling  the  leading  public  offices  and, 
therefore,  as  having  a  right  to  them.  From  them  came 
the  majority  of  the  senators;  the  senate,  therefore,  repre- 
sented the  interests  of  the  nobility. 

383.  Not  all  men  of  wealth,  however,  belonged  to  the 
nobility.  In  many  cases  the  capitalists  were  of  lower 
birth.  But  their  common  interests  drew  them  together, 
and  their  wealth  was  so  great  as  to  give  them  entrance  to 

The  the  class  of  equites  (§317),  where  they  soon  came  to  have 

Equites.  ^  pre(iominance.  Thus  the  equestrian  order  was  sharply 
marked  off  from  the  senatorial  class,  as  representing  the 
wealthy  business  men.  The  interests  of  the  two  orders 
often  clashed  and  brought  trouble  into  the  state. 

The  city  384.  Beneath  these  two  classes  was  the  rest  of  the  com- 
munity. The  farmers  and  their  families  came  to  the  city 
and  helped  to  swell  a  poor  and  restless  population,  whose 
chief  value  was  that  it  could  vote.  Another  element  of 
this  population  was  the  freedmen,  who  absorbed  more  and 
more  of  the  petty  business  of  the  capital.  The  slaves  be- 

The  came  very  numerous.     Vast  numbers  of  them  were  bought 

and  sold  in  the  course  of  the  great  wars.  After  one  of  the 
eastern  victories  the  Roman  commander  sold  his  captives 
at  an  average  price  of  eighty  cents  apiece.  The  fortune  of 
war  reduced  all  classes  of  conquered  peoples,  the  rich  and 
poor,  the  educated  and  the  ignorant,  the  strong  and  the 
weak,  under  one  common  yoke;  in  course  of  time  they 
were  distributed  about  in  the  various  occupations  according 
to  their  ability,  and  their  value  was  thus  determined.  They 
were  employed  in  the  country  for  farming  and  herding. 
They  became  indispensable  in  the  private  houses,  in  the 
mercantile  and  manufacturing  activities  of  the  city  and  as 


Luxury  in  Private  Life  323 

helpers  in  the  state  service.  Their  lot  was  hard,  particu- 
larly that  of  the  country  slave,  who  was  numbered  with 
the  cattle  and  the  dogs. 

385.  Wealth  and  power  wrought  a  striking  change  in  ways  of 
the  living  of  the  upper  classes.     The  old  simplicity  gave  Lmng' 
way  to  luxury.     The  form  was  determined  by  the  models 
of  Graeco-Oriental  life,  which  now  became  the  fashion. 
The  house  was  enlarged  by  opening  a  door  through  the  The  House 
rear  and  adding  a  court,  which  was  surrounded  by  rooms. 
This  was  the  peristyle  and  it  soon  became  the  principal 
part  of  the  dwelling,  the  atrium  being  regarded  as  a  kind  of 
front  parlor  or  state  apartment.     A  second  story  was  added 
and  the  sleeping- rooms  placed  in  it.     The  interior  was 
decorated   with   increasing   splendor,    elaborate   frescoes 
adorned  the  walls,  mosaics  were  set  into  the  floor,  ceilings 
were  panelled  and  gilded.     Many  costly  pieces  of  furniture 
replaced  the  former  bare  and  simple  furnishings.     The  Furnish 
sun-dial  and  the  water-clock  came  from  Greece.     The  lngs' 
bath-room  was  an  indispensable  part  of  the  new  house. 
Public  baths,  also,  were  established,  and  grew  in  number 
and  splendor.     The  furnishings  of  the  table  assumed  un- 
usual importance.     New  kinds  of  food  were  introduced.   Food. 
Wider  conquests  brought  new  delicacies,  nuts  and  fruits; 
wild  game  was  much  used;  the  peacock  was  a  special 
dainty;  fish  and  oysters  became  popular.    A  slave  who 
was  a  good  cook  was  highly  esteemed  and  was   worth 
$5, coo.     The  stool  or  bench  gave  way  to  the  couch,  on 
which  people  reclined  at  dinner.     Abundance  of  silver 
plate,  costly  wines,  many  courses,  rich  dresses,  music  and 
dancing — all  these  show  that  the  abstemious,  severe  Roman 
of  the  early  days  was  yielding  to  the  new  opportunities  for 
rich  living  that  conquest  and  money  put  in  his  way. 


324  Rome's  Eastern  Empire 

Amuse-  386.  Roman    amusements    disclose    similar    changes. 

mcnts.  r£^e  Greek  fashion  of  having  games  in  connection  with 
religious  festivals  (§  118)  became  popular.  Greek  ath- 

Games.  letes  were  often  employed.  The  exhibitions  of  chariot- 
driving  (§  349)  and  wrestling  soon  overshadowed  the  re- 
ligious side  of  the  celebration.  The  Roman  craving  for 
sensation  led  to  the  exhibition  of  wild  beasts,  whose  con- 
tests were  heartily  enjoyed.  The  most  savage  animals 
were  imported  from  the  ends  of  the  earth.  Worse  than 

oiadia-        this  were  the  gladiatorial  contests,  which  first  appeared  at 

shows  Rome  in  264  B.C.  Etruria,  not  Greece,  was  the  home  of 
this  demoralizing  sport,  but  it  found  a  congenial  place  in 
Roman  life.  At  first  exhibited  at  private  funerals,  it  soon 
became  a  part  of  public  life.  In  the  beginning  captives 
fought  for  their  lives  before  the  populace;  then  men  were 
trained  for  this  purpose  and  were  hired  to  exhibit  their  skill 
in  public.  The  idle  and  sensation-loving  horde  of  city- 
folk  went  wild  with  excitement  over  such  displays.  Con- 
servative and  decent  officials  tried  in  vain  to  suppress 

Gambling,  them  by  law.  Gambling  with  dice  for  high  stakes  was  a 
growing  vice  of  the  rich  and  no  legislation  could  avail 
against  it.  Music  and  dancing  came  to  be  regular  accom- 
paniments of  luxurious  feasts.  The  sober  sense  of  the  old 
Roman  was  shocked  by  the  establishment  of  a  dancing- 
school,  where  the  children  of  high  and  low  mingled  in 
dances  which  were  far  from  becoming. 

The  387.  Greek  influence  was  responsible  for  the  rapid 

growth  of  theatrical  performances.  Temporary  wooden 
theatres  on  Greek  models  began  to  be  erected  about  145 
B.C.,  though  a  permanent  stone  structure  was  not  put  up 
till  55  B.C.  It  held  at  least  17,000  people.  The  plays  were 
mostly  comedies  adapted  from  Greek  models.  The  actors 


The  Growth  of  Culture  825 

were  mainly  slaves,  hired  from  a  training  master.  Few 
well-to-do  people  were  present,  as  they  regarded  the  per- 
formances as  common  and  improper.  This  fact  naturally  A  Debasing 
lowered  the  tone  of  the  theatre.  The  plays,  lacking  in  Influence- 
their  Roman  copies  the  Greek  lightness  of  touch,  were 
often  coarse  and  vulgar  and  sometimes  made  sport  of 
virtue  and  religion.  Immense  throngs  of  common  people 
attended  them  and  they  grew  into  great  popularity.  In 
course  of  time  their  character  improved;  they  came  to 
have  some  better  elements  and  aided  in  the  growth  of 
culture. 

388.   It  must  not   be  supposed  that  Graeco- Oriental 
influence  was  all  for  the  worse.     Roman  education,  for  improve- 
example,  was  vastly  improved  by  it.     Greek  literature,  JJwation. 
with  its  wondrous  charm  and  power,  was  thrown  open 
to  the  Romans;  all  that  was  necessary  was  that  systematic 
instruction  in  the  Greek  language  should  be  given.     This  Greek 
the  multitudes  of  Greek  slaves  could  easily  furnish.     It  a*Jguage 
now  became  the  custom  that  every  child,  whose  education  Literature 
was  properly  attended  to,  learned  Greek.     Naturally,  as 
in  Greece  (§  179),  Homer  was  the  text-book  for  language, 
geography,  history  and  religion.      Soon  every  educated 
man  could  speak  Greek  and  even  make  speeches  in  it. 
To  master  another  language  than  one's  own  is  in  itself  a 
liberal  education,  but,  in  addition  to  this,  the  Greek  lan- 
guage led  the  Roman  to  the  knowledge  of  an  unparalleled 
literature.      Soon    other    and    higher   forms   of   Greek 
training  came  to  Rome — the  schools  of  Rhetoric  and  Phi- 
losophy (§§  199,  293)  for  the  further  broadening  of  the  Philosophy. 
Roman  mind.     Thus,  in  addition  to  the  acquirement  of 
knowledge  for  practical  ends  (§352),  came  education  for 
mental   culture.    Another   educative   influence   was   the 


326  Rome's  Eastern  Empire 

wider  horizon  which  opened  before  the  Roman  in  the 
New  new  lands  which  fell  under  his  sway.    Knowledge  of  other 

view.  civilizations  than  his  own,  of  the  wonderful  east  with  its 
treasures  of  art  and  architecture,  was  possible  for  him. 
Young  men  were  sent  out  to  travel  in  these  lands,  either 
with  a  tutor,  or  attached  to  the  staff  of  an  official  or  a  gen- 
eral. They  came  back  with  a  larger  outlook  on  men  and 
things,  no  longer  limited  by  their  own  native  town;  wider 
experience  gave  them  sounder  judgment  and  prepared 
them  for  intelligent  leadership. 

389.  Roman  literature  and  art  likewise  received  a  mighty 
Birth  of       uplift  from  Greece  in  these  days.     As  the  Greek  school- 
Lit«atore     teacher  revolutionized  Roman  education,  so  he  also  pro- 
duced   Roman    literature.     Lucius   Livius    Andronicus 
(about  250  B.C.),  a  Greek  from  Tarentum,  translated  the 
under         "Odyssey"  into  Latin,  and  this  book  gradually  supplanted 
fnfluence.     the  Twelve  Tables  (§  330)  as  the  chief  school  text-book. 
He  also  adapted  Greek  plays,  chiefly  those  of  Euripides 
(§  204),  for  the  Roman  stage.      Gnaeus  Naevius   (about 
225  B.C.)  and  Quintus  Ennius  (239-169  B.C.)  followed  in 
his  footsteps  in  writing  Latin  plays.      Thus  the  Latin 
drama  on  Greek  models  was  established.     Latin  comedy, 
Comedy.      founded  on  the  plays  of   Menander  (§  293),  was  pro- 
duced.    Here  the  great  names  are  Titus  Maccius  Plau- 
tus  (254-184  B.C.)  and  Publius  Terentius  (Terence).    The 
latter  was  born  at  Carthage  after  the  close  of  the  second 
Punic  war  and  taken  as  a  slave  to  Rome  (196-159  B.C.). 
The  plays  of  the  former  are  vivacious  and  strong;  those  of 
the   latter   are  smooth  and  elegant.     Both  Naevius  and 
Ennius  wrote  historical  poems;  the  one  described  the 
First  Punic  War,  the  other  told  the  story  of  Rome  from 
the  beginning  in  rude  Latin  hexameters  in  Homeric  fash- 


Birth  of  Roman  Literature  327 

ion.     Prose  writing  began;  the  subject  was  history  and 
the  language  was  Greek.     Thus  Quintus  Fabius  Pictor  History 
wrote  of  the  Second  Punic  War,  in  which  he  himself  was 
an  actor.     Soon  Latin  prose  appeared,  the  representative 
of  which  was  Cato  the  Elder,  who  wrote  his  Roman  his-   catoth?, 
tory,  called  the  Origines,  about  168  B.C.;  by  his  various  E 
writings  on  agriculture,  war  and  law  he  made  Latin  a  lit- 
erary tongue.     He  is  the  real  founder  of  Latin  prose.     It 
was  not  long  before  two  branches  of  literature  appeared 
in  which  the  native  Roman  genius  displayed  itself  su- 
premely— satire  and  oratory.     The  founder  of  Roman 
satirical  poetry  was  Gaius  Lucilius  (148-103  B.C.),  whose  Satire, 
biting  couplets  were  intensely  enjoyed  by  all  but  their 
subjects.    The  first  of  the  great  orators  were  two  con- 
temporaries, Lucius  Licinius  Crassus  and  Marcus  An-  Oratory, 
tonius  (about  100  B.C.).     "To  hear  both  in  one  day  was 
the  highest  intellectual  entertainment  which  Rome  af- 
forded."  At  the  same  time  Roman  law  took  a  step  forward 
by  the  legal  writings  of  Quintus  Mucius  Scaevola  (about  Law. 
100  B.C.),  who  collected  and  organized  into  a  series  of 
works  the  legal  material  that  had  been  gathering  for  cen- 
turies.   Architecture  now  had  the  services  of  Greek  mas- 
ters and  was  based  on  Greek  models.    Thus  around  the  Architect- 
Forum  arose  stately  public  porticoes  like  those  of  Athens;  ^™ 
elsewhere  in  Rome  marble  temples  and  galleries  began  to 
appear.    An  era  of  good  taste  in  sculpture  and  painting 
began  as  the  Romans  came  in  contact  with  the  master- 
pieces of  Greek  art  in  Syracuse,  Corinth   and  Athens. 
Unfortunately,  they  were  not  satisfied  with  admiring  these; 
they  began  to  covet  them  and  soon  to  exercise  the  right  of 
conquerors  by  carrying  them  off  to  Rome.     In  this  field 
even  more  clearly  than  in  literature  the  overpowering 


J328 


Rome's  Eastern  Empire 


The  Trans- 
forming 
Effects  of 
these 
Influences. 


(i)  Social 

Ideals 

Broken 

Down. 


The 

Better 

Side. 


effect  of  contact  with  Greece  is  to  be  seen.  It  is  a  new 
Rome  that  art  and  literature  reveal  to  us  after,  and  in 
consequence  of,  the  conquest  of  Greece. 

390.  Did  all  these  changes  take  place  in  Rome  without 
effect  upon  the  character  of  her  people  ?    This  is  the  most 
important  question,  and  the  answer  to  it  reveals  as  startling 
a  transformation  as  has  thus  far  been  recorded.     The 
change  may  be  stated  in  brief.     Capitalism  and  culture 
destroyed  the  old  Roman  character  without  putting  any- 
thing better  in  its  place. 

391.  They  broke  down  the  old  social  equality  in  which 
all  lived  for  the  good  of  the  state  (§351).     Wealth  divided 
men  into  classes  and  introduced  new  and  strange  stand- 
ards of  life.     Selfishness  took  the  place  of  patriotism. 
Men  sought  to  get  something  out  of  the  state  instead  of 
doing  something  for  the  state.     The  old  Roman  idea  of 
doing  one's  duty  in  one's  place  turned  into  the  practice 
of  making  the  most  of  one's  position  and  opportunity. 
Thus  each  class  secured  all  sorts  of  distinguishing  marks; 
the  senators  had  special  seats  at  the  circus ;  the  citizen  had 
a  special  dress  and  a  ring  to  separate  him  from  the  for- 
eigner; every  successful  general  sought  for  some  special 
recognition  of  his  services.     The  best  side  of  this  change 
is  seen  in  the  influence  of  Greek  culture  on  the  higher 
class.    The    narrow    preference    of    everything    Roman 
passed  into  a  higher  appreciation  of  what  other  peoples  had 
done  in  art  and  literature.     The  circle  of  men  that  gath- 
ered about  the  Scipios*  was  characterized  by  a  generous 

*  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  the  victor  over  Hannibal  at  Zama,  was 
given  the  title  of  Africanus.  His  adopted  son  was  Publius  Scipio,  called 
/Emilianus  because  he  was  the  son  of  jEmilius  Paulus,  the  victor  at 
Pydna. 


Decline  of  Roman  Morals  329 

and  broad  culture.  Greek  men  of  letters  were  welcomed 
by  them.  Thus  Polybius,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Poiybius. 
Achaean  League,  whom  the  Romans  forced  to  go  to  Rome 
(§  373)>  wrote  in  the  spirit  of  this  finer  life  a  History  of 
Rome  in  Greek,  in  which  he  hailed  the  union  of  Greek 
thought  and  Roman  action  as  a  good  omen  for  the  world's 
future.  It  was  the  first  worthy  piece  of  historical  litera- 
ture since  Thucydides  (§  203).  Yet  even  this  circle,  be- 
cause of  its  broader  life,  regarded  itself  as  separated  from 
the  common  herd. 

392.  Capitalism  and  culture  removed  the  old  Roman  (2)  Moral 
ideas  of  right  and  wrong.  Money  altered  the  way  in  ^tJoJel 
which  people  thought  it  proper  to  live,  introducing  luxury 
and  show  in  the  place  of  the  former  simplicity  (§  348). 
Deeds  were  done  for  gain  which  before  would  have  been 
despised.  The  old  Roman  self-respect  and  dignity  changed 
to  pride  and  arrogance;  these  bred  brutality  in  relation  to 
foreigners.  The  Orientals,  with  their  fine  manners  and 
cringing  ways,  were  treated  with  contempt  and  abuse. 
Slaves,  now  so  numerous  at  Rome,  were  beneath  contempt 
and  often  handled  with  outrageous  cruelty.  The  popu- 
lace at  Rome,  once  loyal  and  laborious,  were  also  corrupted 
by  the  new  spirit  of  greed  and  power.  The  gladiatorial 
games  brutalized  them;  cheap  grain  made  them  lazy. 
The  low  comedies,  borrowed  from  Greece  and  vulgarized 
in  the  process,  were  as  degrading  to  their  morals  as  they 
were  attractive  to  their  sense.  The  votes  of  the  citizens 
began  to  be  estimated  by  their  money  value  and  soon  were 
freely  bought  and  sold.  Money  even  corrupted  the  home 
life;  Roman  matrons  and  daughters  sought  to  lay  up  fort- 
unes, and  prized  gain  beyond  duty  to  husbands  and  fa- 
thers. Increasing  extravagance  and  greed  led  to  family 


330  Rome's  Eastern  Empire 

troubles.     Divorces  began  to  grow  in  frequency;  mar- 
riages for  money  were  not  uncommon.     Thus  public  and 
private  life  was  drifting  away  from  the  old  moorings,  and 
the  new  ways  of  living  offered  no  stable  anchorage.    Many, 
The  con-     it  is  true,  sought  to  stem  the  tide  and  stood  for  the  old 
stmggiT     standards.     Their  foremost  representative  was  Cato  the 
in  Vain.       Elder,  who  fought  for  the  ancient  ideals  of  simplicity  and 
patriotism  with  fierce  denunciations  of  the  novelties  of  the 
time.     But  he  had  no  success,  because  he  had  nothing  to 
put  in  the  place  of  the  new.     The  past  was  forever  gone 
and  no  man  could  bring  it  back  again. 

(3)  Roman  393.  Roman  religion,  in  its  old  forms  and  ideals  (§  355), 
went  the  way  of  a11  the  old  life-  Greek  religion  had  already 
been  discredited  by  philosophy  (§  201),  and  the  old  Roman 
faith  was  less  able  than  the  Greek  to  stand  against  the 
keen  Greek  intellect.  Thus  the  educated  classes  lost  faith 
in  the  ideas  that  underlay  the  Roman  ritual  (§§  314,  355), 
and  the  priests,  while  they  introduced  new  Greek  ritual 
and  identified  Roman  gods  with  Greek  deities,  had  little 
confidence  in  their  ceremonials  except  as  necessary  parts 
of  the  political  machine.  The  literary  men  of  the  time, 
like  Ennius,  openly  expressed  doubts  about  religion.  The 
mass  of  the  people  caught  the  contagion,  laughed  at  the 
jests  on  sacred  subjects  in  the  comedies  of  the  time,  and 
soon  ceased  to  be  influenced  by  the  old  faith.  Meanwhile, 
new  forms  of  eastern  religion  were  offered  to  them,  as 
strange  as  they  were  attractive.  Such  were  the  worship  of 
Dionysus  (§  124),  called  in  Rome  Bacchus,  and  Cybele,  a 
goddess  of  Asia  Minor,  who  appealed,  not  to  the  old  Ro- 
man sense  of  duty,  but  to  the  feelings,  and  led  men  away 
into  all  sorts  of  superstitions.  The  state  did  not  favor 
these  worships,  but,  offering  nothing  to  take  their  place,  it 


Roman  Political  Life  Debased        331 

was  powerless  to  keep  the  Roman  populace  from  running 
after  them.  Certainly  they  were  better  than  no  religion, 
and  the  old  Roman  faith  was  decayed  and  powerless  to 
restrain  or  to  help.  Greek  culture  could  help  the  edu- 
cated class  here  by  the  teachings  of  philosophy,  and,  as 
time  went  on,  the  various  schools  that  had  flourished  in 
Greece  (§  293)  established  themselves  among  the  Romans 
and  found  many  followers. 

394.  Roman  public  life  was  deeply  affected  by  all  these  Effect  on 
influences.    They  showed  themselves  in  various  ways.     A  PubUc  Llf( 
sharp  cleavage  was  made  between  the  public  activities  of 
the  different  classes.    The  nobles  took  a  tighter  grasp  upon  Nobles 
the  public  offices  and  distributed  them  among  their  several  ^*r 
families.     Sometimes  one  family,  like  the  Scipios,  sought 
to  keep  them  within  their  own  circle.     Already  it  was  made 
illegal  for  one  to  be  re-elected  to  an  office  until  a  ten  years' 
interval  had  passed.     A  law  fixed  an  order  in  which  offices 
should  be  held  and  the  age  at  which  one  could   occupy 
them.*  Hence,  it  was  practically  impossible  for  "new  men," 
as  non-nobles  were  called,  to  get  into  office.     On  the  other 
hand,  a  law  was  passed  by  which  senators  were  forbidden 
to  engage  in  commerce,  and  thus  the  monopoly  of  business 
was  left  to  the  equites  (§  383).     These  men  of  business 
now  began  to  use  the  state  for  their  own  purposes.     It  was 
their  influence  that  dictated  the  wars  of  the  period;  they  influence 
secured  the  destruction  of  rival  commercial  cities  like  Car-  JJJ *y 
thage  and  Corinth  (§§  377-378).    The  faithful  allies,  like  Power- 
Pergamum  and  Rhodes,  which  had  been  the  leading  com- 
mercial states  of  the  east,  were  unjustly  treated  in  order 
to  increase  Roman  business  predominance.     The  greed 
of  these  monopolists  made  futile  the  attempts  to  revive 

*  This  order  was  called  the  cursus  honorum,  the  "  career  of  honors." 


332 


Rome's  Eastern  Empire 


Civic 

Selfishness. 


Bribery. 


Comitia 
Reorgan- 
ized. 


What  All 

this 

Means. 


Italy's  peasant  class,  since  they  wanted  more  and  more 
land  for  their  estates.  Colonies  ceased  to  be  sent  out 
from  Rome.  The  cruel  treatment  of  slaves  on  these  es- 
tates led  to  uprisings,  like  the  slave  revolt  in  Sicily,  which 
threw  that  province  into  a  state  of  anarchy  from  139-134 
B.C.  All  provinces  came  to  be  the  prey  of  capitalistic 
robbery  and  extortion.  The  mass  of  the  citizens,  in  their 
turn,  began  selfishly  to  shut  out  others  from  their  privi- 
leges. Once  citizenship  had  been  a  burden;  now  it  was 
a  source  of  profit,  and  the  faithful  allies  that  had  made 
possible  Rome's  victory  over  Hannibal  were  jealously 
excluded  from  it.  Indeed,  little  by  little  these  allies  saw 
their  ancient  rights  withdrawn  and  themselves  treated  as 
subjects.  In  177  B.C.  they  were  denied  their  customary 
share  of  the  spoils  of  war.  Citizens  began  to  expect  more 
in  the  way  of  festivals  and  games  from  the  officials.  Their 
votes  were  even  openly  bought.  The  introduction  of  the 
ballot  in  the  assemblies,  although  an  improvement  on  the 
old  method  of  voting  (§  353),  aided  bribery.  To  offset 
the  growing  power  of  the  people  the  senate,  about  241  B.C., 
reorganized  the  Comitia  Centuriata  on  the  basis  of  the 
tribes  in  such  a  way  that  the  tribes  just  about  the  city, 
over  which  they  had  more  influence,  should  be  in  the  ma- 
jority. The  number  of  tribes  was  fixed  at  thirty-five.  In 
156  B.C.  a  magistrate  was  empowered  to  dispense  with 
holding  an  assembly  of  the  people,  if  the  auspices  (§315) 
were  unfavorable;  thus  religion  became  a  political  instru- 
ment to  thwart  the  popular  will.  All  these  facts  show 
how  the  original  unity  of  the  Roman  state  was  giving  way 
to  factions,  each  intent  on  its  own  selfish  interests.  When 
we  couple  with  this  situation  at  home  the  failure  of  the 
senate  to  uphold  Roman  honor  abroad,  the  extortions  of 


The  Triumph  of  Greed  333 

the  provincial  governors  for  which  there  was  no  redress  in 
the  courts  at  home  (§  379),  and  the  greed  of  generals  and 
armies  who  divided  the  spoils  of  their  victories  among 
themselves,  instead  of  paying  it  into  the  state  treasury,  we 
gain  some  idea  of  the  state  of  Roman  public  life. 

OUTLINE   FOR  REVIEW 
III.  THE  EMPIRE   OF  ROME 

i.  The  Making  of  Rome.     2.  Rome 's  Western  Empire. 

3.  ROME'S  EASTERN  EMPIRE.  Effect  of  eastern  expansion  on  Rome's 
inner  life — transformation  as  the  result  of  (i)  Roman  capitalism, 
(2)  Greek  culture:  changes  of  occupation— new  social  classes — 
ways  of  living  changed  (house,  food,  amusements,  gladiatorial 
shows,  theatre) — education  changed — Roman  literature — art  and 
architecture — effect  of  all  this  upon  character:  (i)  upon  social 
ideals,  (2)  upon  moral  standards,  (3)  upon  Roman  religion,  (4) 
upon  public  life  (nobles  in  power,  money  supreme,  selfishness, 
bribery) . 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  What  is  meant  by  nobiles,  auspices, 
curule  office,  cursus  honorum,  peristyle,  propraetor,  Forum. 
2.  For  what  were  the  following  famous:  Cato  the  Elder,  Ennius, 
Lucilius,  Appius  Claudius,  Menander,  Dionysus? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  the  origin  and  purpose 
of  the  Roman  theatre  with  those  of  the  Greek  (§§  138,  183). 

2.  Compare  a  Roman  citizen  in  this  period  with  one  in  450  B.C. 

3.  What  is  the  difference  in  the  attitude  toward  money  between 
a  Greek  of  the  Age  of  Pericles  (§§  175-177)  and  a  Roman  of  this 
age? 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  Roman 
Life  and  Manners  under  Greek  Influence.  Morey,  pp.  148-152; 
Myres,  ch.  23;  Seignobos,  ch  n;  Wolfson,  ch.  27.  2.  Cor- 
ruption of  Public  Life.  Munro,  pp.  99-100  (source);  Myres, 
ch.  26;  West,  pp.  340-350;  How  and  Leigh,  chs.  28-31;  Ab- 
bott, ch.  5;  Seignobos,  ch.  12;  Botsford,  ch.  6;  Morey,  pp. 
143-148;  Shuckburgh,  ch.  32.  3.  The  Beginnings  of  Roman 
Literature.  Mackail,  pp.  3-38;  Laing,  pp.  1-62  (translation  of 
the  Pbormio  of  Terence).  4.  Roman  Religion  under  Greek  In- 


334 


Rome's  Eastern  Empire 


The 

Beginnings 
of  Civil 
Conflict 


The  Action 
of  Tiberius 
Gracchus. 


The 

Land 

Problem. 


fluence.  Seignobos,  pp.  148-251.  5.  The  Gladiatorial  Games. 
Johnston,  pp.  242-252.  6.  Cato  the  Censor.  Plutarch,  Life 
of  Cato;  Munro,  pp.  95-97  (source);  How  and  Leigh,  pp.  302- 
305;  Shuckburgh,  pp.  518-521;  Seignobos,  pp.  156-359;  Bots- 
ford,  pp.  143-146.  7.  How  far  was  Cato  s  claim  true  that 
should  the  Romans  come  thoroughly  to  imbibe  Greek  liter- 
ature, they  would  lose  the  empire  of  the  world? 

395.  With  such  a  situation  in  Rome's  inner  life  a  con- 
flict of  interests  and  powers  was  unavoidable.  The  fail- 
ure of  the  leading  men  to  solve  the  problems  of  administra- 
tion was  certain  to  call  out  attempts  from  all  sides  to  cope 
with  the  difficulties  which  they  were  not  able  to  meet.  The 
first  attempt,  which  precipitated  a  century  of  struggle,  was 
made  in  133  B.C.,  by  the  tribune  Tiberius  Sempronius 
Gracchus.  A  member  of  the  senatorial  nobility,  the  grand- 
son of  Scipio  Africanus,  and  brother-in-law  of  Scipio 
jEmilianus,  he  was  a  valiant  soldier  of  the  republic  and, 
at  the  same  time,  highly  educated  in  the  new  learning  of 
the  times.  The  miserable  economic  decay  of  Italy  appealed 
to  him,  and  he  sought  to  restore  prosperity  by  introducing 
an  agrarian  law  for  the  distribution  of  the  public  lands 
among  the  citizens.  The  limit  upon  the  amount  of  public 
land  to  be  leased  to  any  one  citizen  set  by  the  Licinian  laws 
(§  338)  had  been  disregarded  to  such  an  extent  that  prac- 
tically all  of  it  had  been  taken  up  in  the  great  estates  of  the 
rich  proprietors.  The  law  of  Tiberius  Gracchus  estab- 
lished a  commission  of  three  (triumvirate}  to  secure  the 
carrying  out  of  the  new  provisions  which  contemplated 
reducing  the  illegal  holdings  to  their  proper  limits  and  as- 
signing the  remainder  in  equal  parts  to  landless  citizens. 
The  proposal  created  a  storm  in  which  the  senate  placed 
itself  in  opposition  to  the  tribune;  even  his  colleague  inter- 
posed a  veto.  Thereupon  Tiberius,  falling  back  on  ancient 


The  Gracchi  335 

precedent  (§  339),  appealed  directly  to  the  people,  who  re-  Tiberius 
sponded  by  deposing  the  obstructive  tribune  and  passing  ^the18 
the  law.    The  commission  was  appointed  and  began  its  People, 
work.    To  carry  out  his  plans,  Tiberius  found  it  necessary 
to  override  the  law  prohibiting  re-election  (§  394)  and  stand 
again  for  tribune.     But  the  nobles  banded  against  him; 
a  riot  was  raised  at  election  time,  the  partisans  fought  in  His  Death, 
the  streets  of  Rome,  and  Tiberius  was  killed. 

396.  In  his  zeal  for  reform  Tiberius  Gracchus  had  raised  Rise 
issues  hitherto  unheard  of  at  Rome,  and,  no  doubt,  not  Pfarties 
grasped  by  himself.     He  was  the  first  to  bring  new  political 
ideas  into  the  field,  which  divided  the  community  into 
parties.    The  Optimates,  or  Aristocrats,  and  the  Populares 

or  Democrats,  henceforth  struggle  for  leadership.     Men 
of  all  classes  array  themselves  on  either  side.     In  appeal- 
ing to  the  people  as  sovereign  in  election  and  legislation  The 
without  regard  to  senate  and  magistrates,  he  brought  a  people™1*11 
new  doctrine  into  Roman  politics.     This  was  a  Greek 
idea  (§  168);  at  Rome  the  state  depended  upon  the  joint 
action  of  all  three  and  did  not  go  back  to  any  one  as  su- 
preme.   Party  struggles  led  to  civil  strife,  in  which  reason 
gave  way  to  force  and  the  state  was  shaken  to  its  founda- 
tions. 

397.  Ten  years  passed,  when,  in  123  B.C.,  Gaius  Grac-  Work  of 
chus,  younger  brother  of  Tiberius,  was  elected  tribune,  c^cchus. 
He  proceeded  to  move  farther  along  the  path  opened  by 

his  brother  and  showed  greater  resolution,  clearer  insight 
and  more  vigorous  leadership.     Under  his  direction  the  war 
people  proceeded  to  reclaim  their  ancient  powers  usurped  senate. 
by  the  senate.     The  law  of  appeal  (§  331)  was  restored. 
The  right  of  appointing  governors  of  provinces  was  re- 
claimed.    The  senate  was  still  further  humiliated  by  the 


336 


Rome's  Eastern  Empire 


The 

Franchise 
Question. 


His 
Death. 


The 
Senate 
Fails  to 
Manage 
Affairs. 


Jugurthine 
War. 


transference  of  the  court  for  trying  provincial  officials 
(§379)  to  tne  equites.  The  people  were  favored  by  a  law 
establishing  a  free  distribution  of  grain  (§  381),  by  the 
renewal  of  the  agrarian  law  (§395),  and  the  establishment 
of  colonies.  These  measures  secured  the  support  of  the 
equites  and  of  the  populace.  The  next  year  Gaius  was  re- 
elected.  Now  he  took  a  bolder  step,  in  the  interests  of 
the  peoples  of  Italy,  by  proposing  to  admit  those  allies 
having  the  Latin  right  to  citizenship.  Such  a  measure 
was  simple  justice  and  would  have  strengthened  the  citizen 
body  of  Rome  by  introducing  new  and  better  elements. 
But  he  could  not  carry  the  selfish  and  jealous  citizens 
with  him  in  this,  failed  of  re-election  the  next  year  and 
was  killed,  as  his  brother  had  been,  in  a  street  riot  (121 
B.C.).  He  had  shown  what  party  government  could  ac- 
complish under  an  enterprising  and  uncompromising  head, 
he  had  broken  the  usurpation  of  the  senate  and  had 
thrown  the  question  of  Italian  franchise  into  the  field.  The 
agrarian  legislation  was  futile;  the  work  of  the  commission 
languished;  fields  assigned  were  abandoned,  and  by 
in  B.C.  all  holders  of  public  land,  rich  and  poor,  were 
confirmed  in  their  possession.  Rome  ceased  to  have  any 
public  land  in  Italy. 

398.  When  the  conflict  broke  out  again,  party  leaders 
of  a  different  type  came  to  the  front  and  with  them  a  new 
force  took  the  field.  The  victorious  senate  again  tried 
to  conduct  affairs.  They  failed  in  the  notable  instance 
of  the  Numidian  War  (112-106  B.C.).  The  king  of  Nu- 
midia,  an  ally  of  Rome,  left  his  kingdom  on  his  death  to 
his  three  sons.  One  of  them,  Jugurtha,  sought  to  secure 
the  prize  for  himself;  he  killed  one  brother  and  made  war 
on  the  other.  He  continued  to  cause  trouble  in  defiance 


The  Cimbri  and  Teutones  337 

of  the  senate,  which  thereupon  declared  war.  The  sen- 
atorial generals,  first  sent  out,  were  bribed  by  the  crafty 
king  and  made  a  disgraceful  peace.  The  senate  repudi- 
ated it  and  sent  out  another  general,  who  took  out  with  him 
as  lieutenant,  Gaius  Marius,  a  man  of  low  rank  but  a  sue- 
cessful  soldier.  More  was  accomplished  in  this  campaign, 
but  in  107  B.C.  the  democracy  took  matters  into  their  own 
hands  and  made  Marius  consul  for  the  purpose  of  bring- 
ing the  war  to  a  close.  This  he  speedily  accomplished. 
Jugurtha  was  brought  a  prisoner  to  Rome  and  died  in  a 
Roman  dungeon. 

399.  Meanwhile,  a  serious  danger  had  been  threatening  The 
Italy  from  the  north.     For  a  long  time  the  Romans  had  £eo™r 
been  making  war  in  Gaul  on  the  other  side  of  the  Alps  the  Nor^ 
(Gallia  Transalpina),  and   had   established   a  province 
called  Gallia  Narbonensis,  from  the  name  of  the  capital 
city,  Narbo.     Now,  down  from  the  distant  and  unknown  The 
north  came  two  peoples,  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones,  who  Invaders- 
sought  homes  in  the  more  fertile  south.     Breaking  their 
way  through  the  already  weakened  barrier  of  Gallic  tribes, 
they  came  face  to  face  with  the  Roman  armies  and  de- 
feated them  in  four  successive  battles  (in  113,  109,  107, 
105  B.C.).    The  route  into  Italy  stood  open  to  them.     Dis- 
mayed at  the  prospect,  the  democracy  again  stepped  for- 
ward and  elected  their  hero  Marius  as  consul  and  defender  Marius 
against  this  dreaded  foe.     For  four  successive  years  he  \™** 
was    thus    chosen.    The    invaders    had    separated — the 
Teutones  taking  the  route  from  the  northwest,  the  Cimbri 
passing  around  the  Alps  and  entering  Italy  from  the  north- 
east.    In  102  B.C.  Marius  met  the  Teutones  at  Aquae 
Sextiae  and  defeated  them.     The  next  year  (101   B.C.), 
joining  his  colleague,  who  was  facing  the  Cimbri  in  the 


338  Rome's  Eastern  Empire 

Raudine  plains,  he  annihilated  them.    Thus  Italy  was 
saved  and  Marius  was  its  saviour.     He  had  gained  his 
His  success  not  more  by  his  own  valor  than  by  the  military 

iSms.      reforms  he  introduced.     Doing  away  with  the  usual  prac- 
tice of  levying  soldiers  and  limiting  the  levy  to  men  of 
property  (§  317),  he  invited  Roman  citizens  to  enroll  them- 
selves under  his  banner  regardless  of  property  qualifica- 
tions.    As  a  result  he  had  an  army  made  up  of  men  who 
wished  to  fight  and  were  devoted  to  their  commander. 
The  New          40O.  Thus  the  seed  sown  by  the  Gracchi  had  sprung 
situation.      up  and  bome  unexpecte(j  fmit     The  democracy  placed 

at  its  head  a  military  hero  behind  whom  stood  an  army 
whose  first  interest  was  not  loyalty  to  the  state,  but  de- 
votion to  its  leader.  For  the  defence  of  the  state  abroad 
and  the  overthrow  of  enemies  at  home  the  democracy 
did  not  hesitate  to  re-elect  its  chief  to  the  highest  offices 
year  after  year.  Marius  held  the  consulship  seven  times. 
This  example  was  soon  followed  by  the  other  party.  Mili- 

Mmtary       tary  prowess  began  to  take  the  place  of  civic  leadership. 

the'ptopil  ^e  was  strongest  who  had  an  army  under  his  command. 
Ambition  got  the  better  of  patriotism  and  set  military 
power  against  civic  right.  The  conflict  of  parties  passed 
into  the  struggle  of  individuals  occupying  positions  in 
which  they  controlled  armies. 

Suiia.  401.  One  of  these  men  who  had  gained  his  military 

education  under  the  new  captain  was  to  outdo  Marius  on 
his  own  field.  This  was  Lucius  Cornelius  Sulla,  a  man 
of  noble  family,  an  aristocrat  in  temper  and  tastes,  who 
took  his  stand  on  the  side  of  the  senatorial  party.  Sulla, 
like  Marius,  owed  his  opportunity  to  the  incapacity  of 
Roman  administration  at  home  and  abroad. 
402.  Marius  was  no  statesman.  Under  his  leadership 


The  Social  War  339 

the  democracy  plunged  Rome  into  a  series  of  useless  civil 
conflicts.    The  one  leading  question  left  unsettled  was  The 
that  of  the  franchise  for  the  Italian  allies,  but  with  this 
the  democrats  did  not  care  to  deal.     Finally,  from  the  side 
of  the  senate,  Drusus,  in  91  B.C.,  proposed,  among  other  Drusus. 
things,  to  give  citizenship  to  them.     The  proposal  was  re- 
jected and  Drusus  lost  his  life  in  the  struggle.     The  long- 
suffering  allies,   thus  again  deluded,   rose  in  arms,   re- 
nounced their  allegiance  and  undertook  the  founding  of 
a  new  Italian  state,  "Italica,"  with  its  capital  at  Cor- 
finium.      This  formidable  revolt,  the  Social*  War  (91-  The 
88  B.C.),  was  ended  with  a  formal  victory  for  Rome,  but  w'"ral 
a  virtual  success  for  the  allies,  since  a  series  of  laws,  grant- 
ing citizenship  to  certain  classes  among  them,  was  passed 
during  the  war  and  did  more  than  Roman  arms  to  weaken 
their  opposition. 

403.  These  laws  were  the  Lex  Julia  (90  B.C.),  granting  settlement 
citizenship  to  Italian  states  not  in  rebellion,  and  the  Lex  Jranchise 
Plautia  Papiria  (89  B.C.),  admitting  all  Italians  without  Question, 
distinction  to  the  franchise  on  application  to  the  praetor 
within  sixty  days.     At  the  same  time  all  the  cities  of  Cis- 
alpine Gaul  received  the  Latin  right.     It  seems,  however, 

that  the  advantages  of  citizenship  were  limited  from  the 
fact  that  the  new  citizens  were  all  confined  to  eight  tribes. 

404.  Sulla  had  distinguished  himself  by  service  in  the 
Social  War  and  was  elected  consul  in  88  B.C.     The  situa- 
tion in  the  eastern  provinces  was  alarming  and  a  vigorous 
leader  was  required  to  cope  with  it.     Among  the  states 
allied  to  Rome  in  Asia  Minor  was  Pontus.     To  the  throne 
of  this  kingdom,  in  114  B.C.,  came  a  remarkable  ruler, 
Mithridates,  whose  ambition  contemplated   nothing  less 

*  So  called  from  the  Latin  word  for  allies,  Socii. 


340  Rome's  Eastern  Empire 

Rise  of        than  the  revival  of  an  empire  on  the  modei  of  Alexander's, 
JifJf          which  should  drive  the  Romans  out  of  the  east.     Left  free 
Pontus.        to  act  by  tne  incompetence  of  the  senate  and  its  eastern 
representatives,  he  built  up  a  vast  coalition  and,  taking 
advantage  of  a  wanton  act  of  aggression  on  the  part  of  the 
war  Roman  officials,  he  launched  his  armies  against  them,  de- 

Rome,  feated  their  forces  and  took  possession  of  the  province  of 
Asia  (88  B.C.).  This  victory  was  followed  by  the  massacre 
of  all  Romans  throughout  the  province  to  the  number  of 
80,000. 

405.  Awakened  to  the  growing  danger,  the  senate  had 

Sulla  appointed  Sulla  to  deal  with  Mithridates  the  year  before. 

Derno1-6        ^u*  ^e  democracy,  claiming  the  right  to  make  these  ap- 

cracy.          pointments,  under  the  leadership  of  the  tribune  Sulpicius, 

in  88  B.C.,  appointed  Marius  to  the  position.     Sulla,  who 

had  collected  an  army  for  his  foreign  task  and  was  about 

to  leave  Italy,  suddenly  marched  on  Rome,  and,  for  the 

first  time  in  Roman  history,  a  Roman  army  entered  the 

walls  and  placed  its  commander  in  possession  of  the  state. 

Sulpicius  was  killed,  Marius  fled,  and  their  partisans  were 

overawed.    Then,  having  left  his  party  in  power,  Sulla 

departed  with  his  army  for  the  war  with  Mithridates. 

Party  406.  Hardly  had  he  disappeared  when  the  consul  Cinna, 

continue.     with  the  support  of  Marius*  and  an  army,  restored  the 

democracy  to  power,  and  took  bloody  vengeance  on  its 

enemies.     But    its    triumph   was   short.     Sulla's    return 

from  the  east  brought  it  to  an  end.     He  had  spent  four 

suiia  years  in  bringing  Mithridates  to  terms  (87-84  B.C.).    The 

rnthru        Oriental  king  retired  to  Pontus,  beaten  but  not  overcome. 

dates,          The  province  of  Asia  was  recovered  and  its  inhabitants 

forced  to  pay  their  arrears  of  tribute  and  20,000  talents 

*  Marius  died  soon  after. 


Sulla  Supreme  at  Rome  341 

besides,  a  punishment  which  brought  them  to  financial 
ruin.    The  Greeks  who  had  sided  with  Mithridates  were 
also  punished.    Then  Sulla  returned  home  to  avenge  him-  And 
self  on  his  adversaries.     A  decisive  victory  over  the  troops  g^ns 
opposing  him  in  Italy  gave  him  entrance  to  Rome  and 
placed  him  in  possession  of  supreme  power  in  81  B.C.     He  At  the 
was  appointed  Dictator,  with  the  task  of  bringing  order  f^^le 
into  the  state.     His  accession  was  a   signal   for  bloody 
massacres  of  his  enemies,  the  confiscation  of  their  property 
and  the  enrichment  of  his  followers.     His  political  policy 
was  simple,  the  restoration  of  the  senate  to  supremacy  and  Establishes 
the  establishment  of  its  position  by  constitutional  authority,  stprtmacy 
The  powers  claimed  by  the  people  were  swept  away.    The  of  the 
consent  of  the  senate  was  required  before  measures  could 
be  proposed  to  the  Comitia;  the  tribunes  were  stripped 
of  all  but  intercessory  powers  (§  329)  and  those  holding 
the  office  of  tribune  made  thereafter  ineligible  for  other 
offices;  the  courts  were  restored  to  the  senators  (§  397) ;  the 
cursus  honorum  (§  394)  and  the  law  against  re-election  to 
office  were  revived.     Having  thus  accomplished  his  ob- 
ject as  he  believed,  Sulla  resigned  the  office  of  dictator 
(74  B.C.),  retired  to  private  life  and  died  not  long  after.  SuiiaDies. 
The  senate  was  once  more  in  the  saddle,  this  time,  as  it 
seemed,  legally  seated  in  control. 

407.  But,  like  the  work  of  any  man  who  moves  against  Suiia-s 
the  irresistible  current  of  history,     Sulla's  political  re-  ^equate 
forms  were  vain.    He  made  no  attempt  to  solve  the  prob-  and  Futile, 
lems  of  provincial  administration  or  to  guard  against  the 
dangers  arising  out  of  military  leadership,  and  from  these 
quarters  his  scheme  was  shattered  within  a  few  years  of  its  Failure  of 
establishment.     Rome  and  its  provinces  were  growing  J^!™"1 
more  and  more  dependent  upon  one  another.    The  food-  tration. 


342  Rome's  Eastern  Empire 

supply  of  Italy  was  largely  met  by  the  importation  of  grain 
from  the  provinces.  The  business  of  Rome  stretched 
over  the  whole  civilized  world,  and  its  progress  depended 
upon  the  peace  and  prosperity  of  the  provinces.  Hence, 
a  government  that  kept  the  provinces  in  order,  that  secured 
peace  and  established  justice,  was  absolutely  necessary. 
But  just  here  the  old  Roman  system  was  a  failure.  Rome 
was  a  city-state  and  its  government  was  not  organized  for 
imperial  rule  over  a  wide  domain.  Neither  senate  nor 
solution  people  was  equal  to  the  demand.  The  only  way  to  solve 
Problem.  tne  problem  was  to  give  large  powers  to  the  magistrate; 
yet  this  brought  with  it  the  danger  that  the  state  had  been 
guarding  against  for  centuries — making  the  magistrate 
too  powerful,  giving  him  control  of  the  government.  We 
have  seen  how  the  state  was  steadily  moving  in  this  direc- 
tion. Marius  and  Sulla  are  examples  of  the  tendency  which 
was  growing  stronger  and  stronger.  The  party  conflicts  at 
Rome  only  opened  wider  the  door  of  opportunity  to  the 
magistrates.  Thus  the  expansion  of  Rome  to  an  Empire 
brought  about  the  breaking  down  of  the  old  constitution. 
The  New  408.  Sulla's  legislation  was  a  feeble  dam  across  the  cur- 
to^ome.  rent,  which  soon  carried  it  off.  Shortly  after  his  death 
Roman  power  was  being  threatened  from  three  sides,  (i) 
The  province  of  Spain  was  in  possession  of  the  adherents 
of  Marius,  led  by  a  gallant  soldier,  Sertorius.  (2)  A 
terrible  insurrection  of  slaves  in  Italy  broke  out  under  the 
leadership  of  a  gladiator,  Spartacus.  (3)  The  east  was 
in  an  uproar  owing  to  the  ravages  of  pirates,  having  their 
seats  on  the  coasts  and  islands  of  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean, especially  Cilicia  and  Crete.  They  destroyed 
Roman  commerce  and  even  cut  off  the  food-supply  from 
Rome.  Mithridates,  also,  was  recovering  from  his  defeat 


The  Rise  of  Pompey  343 

and  organizing  a  new  coalition  to  sweep  the  Romans  out 
of  the  east. 

409.  In  the  face  of  these  troubles,  the  senate  was  forced  Rise  of 
to  find  a  helper  in  the  person  of  a  young  man  who  had  won  Pompey- 
his  spurs  under  Sulla.     This  was  Gneius  Pompeius,* 

of  noble  family,  whose  father  had  been  a  successful  gen- 
eral.    In  77  B.C.  he  was  given  proconsular  power  by  the 
senate  contrary  to  the  Sullan  constitution,  and  sent  into 
Spain,  where  he  overcame  Sertorius  in  72  B.C.     Then,  re- 
turning to  Rome,  he  sought  the  consulship.     When  the 
senate  opposed  him,  he  allied  himself  with  Crassus,  the 
richest  man  in  Rome.     Crassus  was  leader  of  the  equites 
and  had  already  brought  the  war  with  Spartacus  to  an  end. 
The  two  leaders  turned  to  the  democracy  and  obtained  its  suiia-s 
support  by  promising  to  overthrow  the  constitution  of  JJ^ 
Sulla.    Thus,   in  defiance  of  the  senate,   Pompey  was  thrown, 
elected  consul  and  carried  out  the  programme.     Sulla's 
work  perished  less  than  ten  years  after  his  death. 

410.  Meanwhile,  the  war  with  Mithridates  was  renewed 
and  the  Roman  general  Lucullus,  a  man  of  ability  and 
worth,  was  able  to  win  several  victories  (74-68  B.C.).     But 
the  devastations  wrought  by  the  pirates  continued.    Ac- 
cordingly, in  67  B.C.,  the  tribune  Gabinius  proposed  to  Pompey 
the  people  to  give  Pompey  large  powers  for  three  years  to 
undertake  their  subjugation.    The  next  year  (66  B.C.),  by 

the  proposal  of  the  tribune  Manilius,  the  conduct  of  the 
war  with  Mithridates  was  also  conferred  upon  him;  by 
this  "Manilian"  law  he  was  given  unlimited  authority 
for  the  settlement  of  the  east.  By  these  two  laws  Pom- 
pey was  placed  in  a  position  of  power  which  no  Roman 
before  him  had  ever  occupied. 

*'  The  English  form  of  his  name,  Pompey,  will  be  henceforth  used. 


344 


Rome's  Eastern  Empire 


New 
Leaders. 


Cicero. 


Political 
Ideal. 


Caesar. 


The 

Conspiracy 
of  Catiline. 


411.  In  support  of  these  measures  two  men  came  for- 
ward who  were  destined  thenceforth  to  play  a  large  part  in 
Roman  life — Marcus  Tullius   Cicero  and   Gaius  Julius 
Csesar.     Cicero  was  a  countryman,  of  equestrian  rank, 
who  was  rapidly  rising  to  the  position  of  the  leading  orator 
at  Rome  and  head  of  the  equites.     A  man  of  fine  personal 
character  and  wide  culture,  he  was  zealous  for  the  restora- 
tion of  the  old  Roman  constitution  and  the  revival  of  the 
old  Roman  spirit.    This  he  hoped  to  secure  by  giving  the 
Italian  element  in  Roman  citizenship  a  larger  place  in  the 
state.     The  people,  thus  braced  and  purified  by  the  in- 
fluence of  this  worthier  and  sounder  element,  he  hoped 
to  see  unite  with  the  senate  in  a  new  and  firm  government. 
It  was  a  beautiful  dream,  and  Cicero  gave  his  life  to  its 
realization.     Caesar  belonged  to  one  of  the  oldest  and 
proudest  patrician  families.    He  was  a  daring  and  far-see- 
ing spirit,  cherishing  no  dreams,  eager  to  play  a  leading 
part  in  the  politics  of  his  day.     Related  by  marriage  to 
Marius,  he  took  the  side  of  the  democratic  party  and 
from  that  standpoint  sought  to  re-establish  and  glorify 
the  Roman  name. 

412.  Pompey  was  in  the  East  five  years  (66-62  B.C.). 
During  his  absence  a  crisis  occurred  at  Rome  which  well- 
nigh  destroyed  the  state.    The  rapid  rise  of  the  democracy 
encouraged  the  discontented  and  the  miserable  to  hope  for 
a  change  of  fortune.     A  ruined  and  reckless  patrician, 
Catiline  by  name,  sought  to  unite  all  who  were  like  him- 
self in  character  and  fortune  in  a  conspiracy  to  overthrow 
the  government  and  plunder  the  rich.     How  widely  the 
plot   extended   was   never   known.     Even   Crassus   and 
Caesar  are  thought  to  have  had  knowledge  of  it.    To  meet 
the  danger  feared  rather  than  known,  the  more  conservative 


Julius  Caesar 


Vespasian 


Cicero 


Hadrian 


Faustina  Commodus 

TYPICAL   ROMAN    HEADS 


Pompey  in  the  East  345 

citizens,  optimates  and  equites  united,  elected  Cicero  as 
one  of  the  consuls  in  the  years  64  and  63  B.C.  He  showed 
uncommon  skill  and  courage  in  grappling  with  it,  un-  ckero 
earthed  the  conspirators  and  impeached  them.  Though  £verthrows 
Catiline  fled,  other  leaders  were  seized,  and  on  the  author- 
ity of  the  senate  put  to  death  by  the  consul.  In  62  B.C. 
Catiline,  who  had  gathered  an  army,  was  overthrown  in 
battle  and  died  righting.  It  was  Cicero's  one  splendid 
political  success  in  uniting  the  best  elements  of  the  state 
in  its  defence,  and  he  looked  forward  to  the  speedy  realiz- 
ation of  his  dream  (§411).  But  he  was  soon  to  be  sorely 
disappointed. 

413.  The  career  of  Pompey  in  the  east  had  been  one  Pompey-s 
uninterrupted  success.  Forty  days  sufficed  for  him  to 
clear  the  sea  of  pirates;  he  pursued  them  to  their  strong- 
holds and  destroyed  them.  Then  he  advanced  against 
Mithridates  and  his  son-in-law  and  ally,  Tigranes  of 
Armenia.  A  victory  in  66  B.C.  shattered  the  Pontic  power 
and  brought  peace  with  Tigranes.  The  Parthians  also 
allied  with  Pompey.  Steadily  Mithridates  was  hemmed 
in,  until,  in  63  B.C.,  he  killed  himself.  His  kingdom 
was  made  a  Roman  province.  The  kingdom  of  the  Se- 
leucidae  (§  287)  was  brought  to  an  end  and  Syria  became 
a  province  (64  B.C.).  The  Jewish  king  (§  374)  resisted 
Pompey,  who  stormed  Jerusalem  (63  B.C.)  and  reduced 
Judea  to  a  Roman  dependency  ruled  by  high-priests.  The 
Euphrates  river  became  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Ro- 
man state.  Cities  were  founded,  stable  government  was 
restored  and  prosperity  revived.  Three  new  provinces, 
Bithynia-Pontus,  Syria  and  Crete  were  added  to  Rome's 
eastern  possessions ;  the  province  of  Cilicia  was  enlarged 
and  friendly  alliances  with  the  border-kings  and  chiefs 


346  Rome's  Eastern  Empire 

were  established  or  renewed.  An  immense  sum  was  paid 
into  the  Roman  treasury.  Pompey  had  amply  fulfilled 
his  task  and  now  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  triumphed, 
in  6 1  B.C. 

414.  The  senate  took  an  attitude  of  criticism  and  dis- 
favor toward  Pompey,  and  refused  to  give  lands  to  his 
veterans  or  ratify  his  acts  in  the  east.  Looking  elsewhere 
for  allies,  he  joined  with  Caesar  and  Crassus  in  a  coalition 
The  First  which  has  been  called  the  first  Triumvirate.  It  meant 
vinte!"  ^at  ^e  umted  influence  of  all  should  be  used  to  satisfy 
the  desires  of  each.  They  were  entirely  successful.  Caesar 
was  elected  consul  in  59  B.C.;  as  consul  he  secured  for 
Pompey  the  things  denied  him  by  the  senate;  also  Crassus 
and  his  friends  were  enriched.  Caesar  also  obtained  an 
appointment  as  proconsul  in  Gaul  for  five  years,  beginning 
in  58  B.C.  The  compact  was  followed  by  the  marriage 
of  Pompey  and  Caesar's  daughter,  Julia. 

its  415.  It  turned  out  that  Caesar's  proconsulate  in  Gaul 

Renewal.  iaste(j  for  ten  years.  When  his  first  term  was  about  to 
close,  the  triumvirate  met  again  (56  B.C.)  at  Luca  and 
agreed  to  use  their  influence  to  have  Pompey  and  Crassus 
elected  consuls  for  55  B.C.  The  two  consuls  would  then 
see  to  it  that  Caesar's  term  should  be  prolonged  for  another 
five  years,  while  they  themselves  were  also  to  have  each  a 
five  years'  term  as  proconsul,  Crassus  in  Syria  and  Pompey 
in  Spain.  The  agreement  was  duly  carried  out.  Crassus 
left  for  Syria  in  54  B.C.,  where  he  was  killed  in  battle  with 
the  Parthians  the  following  year.  Caesar  remained  in 
Gaul.  Pompey  lingered  at  Rome. 

Rome  in  416.  Political  affairs  in  Rome  had  been  going  from  bad 
to  worse.  Intrigue  and  the  strife  of  factions  filled  the  city 
with  confusion  and  turmoil.  Partisan  leaders  surrounded 


Ccesar's  Campaigns  in  Gaul  347 

by  armed  adherents  paraded  the  streets  and  fought  with 
one  another.  An  adept  at  this  sort  of  politics  was  the 
young  and  dissolute  patrician,  Publius  Clodius,  a  demo- 
crat of  the  type  of  Catiline,  who  succeeded  in  terrorizing 
foes  and  friends  alike.  As  tribune,  he  proceeded  to  get 
Cicero  banished  in  58  B.C.,  for  having  violated  the 
law  of  appeal  by  putting  the  Catilinarian  conspirators  to 
death  (§  412).  A  turn  of  the  wheel  brought  the  great 
orator  back  in  triumph  the  next  year.  Clodius,  finally, 
was  killed  in  a  street  fight  in  52  B.C.  Pompey  began  Pompey 
gradually  to  draw  away  from  Caesar  and  incline  toward  ]^™eto 
the  optimates.  Soon  after  the  conference  at  Luca  (§  415)  Senate, 
his  wife  Julia  died  and,  with  the  death  of  Crassus,  the 
last  link  that  bound  him  personally  to  Caesar  was  severed. 
In  52  B.C.  he  was  made  sole  consul  and  introduced  meas- 
ures which  revealed  his  alliance  with  the  senate  and  his 
break  with  Caesar. 

417.  Jealousy  and  fear  of  Caesar  may  have  had  much  c«sar  i 
to  do  with  this  new  attitude  of  Pompey.  For  Caesar's  GauL 
career  in  Gaul  had  been  remarkable.  The  ten  years,  now 
drawing  to  a  close  (58-49  B.C.),  had  been  occupied  with 
hard  fighting  and  skilful  diplomacy.  Assigned  the  prov- 
inces of  Cisalpine  and  Transalpine  Gaul  and  Illyricum, 
he  proceeded  at  once  to  protect  Roman  interests  on  their 
borders,  threatened  by  movements  among  the  tribes  be- 
yond. The  continual  tumult  caused  by  quarrels  between 
these  tribes  was  heightened  by  the  incoming  of  Germans 
from  across  the  Rhine.  Already  the  Helvetii,  a  Gallic 
tribe  living  in  the  country  about  the  sources  of  the  Rhone 
and  Rhine,  were  hard  pressed  and  prepared  to  move  west- 
ward. If  the  pressure  were  not  removed,  the  Roman 
province  would  sooner  or  later  be  threatened  with  inva- 


348  Rome's  Eastern  Empire 

sion.  Requests  for  help  from  Gallic  tribes  gave  another 
opportunity  for  Caesar's  interference.  He  crossed  the 
Roman  border,  forced  back  the  Helvetii  who  had  already 
begun  to  move,  drove  the  Germans  in  Gaul  over  the  Rhine, 
and  plunged  into  a  series  of  campaigns  which,  in  succes- 
sive years,  carried  his  arms  to  the  North  sea,  across  the 
Rhine,  to  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  and  into  Britain.  Op- 
position was  crushed  or  turned  by  alliance  into  friendship 
until  the  Roman  name  was  supreme  throughout  all  Gaul. 
No  attempt  was  made  to  bring  the  country  under  the 
direct  rule  of  Rome,  but,  following  his  army,  came  Roman 
commerce  and  culture  to  transform  the  people  and  pre- 
pare the  way  for  the  addition  of  Gaul  to  the  Empire, 
importance  Caesar's  achievement  had  two  results:  (i)  it  turned  Gaul 
Wor^s  into  a  bulwark  of  civilization  to  hold  back  advancing 
There.  German  barbarism  and  thus  furnished  a  means  for  ex- 
tending this  civilization  and  establishing  it  in  the  regions 
beyond  Gaul.  Thereby  all  succeeding  periods  of  west- 
ern history  down  to  our  own  day  have  been  stamped  with 
Rome's  impress.  (2)  Caesar  gained  for  himself  men  and 
money  by  which  to  take  a  commanding  part  in  the  further 
history  of  Rome. 

Caesar  m          418.  Caesar  had  sore  need  of  these  things,  for  Pompey, 
with  the       backed  by  the  senate,  was  rapidly  taking  a  more  hostile 
senate.        attitude.    Caesar's  term  as  proconsul  closed  in  49  B.C.,  and 
he  could  not  enter  upon  the  consulship  for  which  he  wished 
to  stand  till  48  B.C.     Meanwhile,  he  would  be  a  private 
citizen  and  could  be  brought  to  trial  and  ruined  on  charges 
which  he  knew  would  be  trumped  up  against  him.    More- 
over, he  could  canvass  for  election  only  by  coming  to 
Rome  in  person;  this  he  could  not  do  without  leaving  his 
province  and  giving  up  his  proconsulate.     He  sought  to 


IARCH  OK  CESAR  AXU 

Campaign 
Campaign 
Campaign 
Campaign 
Campaign 
Campaign 
Campaign 
Campaign 


Ccesar  Crosses  the  Rubicon  349 

have  these  conditions  waived  in  his  case,  but  the  senate 
refused.  Finally,  after  endless  negotiations,  the  senate 
commanded  him  to  resign  his  province,  and  Pompey  was 
called  upon  to  save  the  state  from  him  as  a  public  enemy. 
In  response  Caesar  crossed  the  Rubicon,  a  river  which 
separated  his  province  from  Italy,  and  marched  rapidly  on 
Rome  with  an  army  (January  49  B.C.).  Rome  was  in  alarm,  He 
and  Pompey,  with  the  majority  of  the  senate  and  a  crowd 
of  nobles,  fled  to  the  coast  and  crossed  over  to  Greece, 
where  he  gathered  an  army  from  the  eastern  provinces. 
Caesar  found  himself,  without  serious  opposition,  in  pos-  is  Master 
session  of  Italy  and  Rome.  After  a  hasty  expedition  to  of  Italy' 
Spain,  where  he  overthrew  his  enemies,  he  was  appointed 
dictator,  held  the  elections,  in  which  he  was  made  consul 
(48  B.C.),  and  proceeded  to  enter  upon  the  struggle  with 
Pompey  and  the  senatorial  party. 

419.  The  decisive  battle  was  fought  at  Pharsalus  in  Pharsaius. 
Thessaly  (48  B.C.).     Pompey  was  beaten  and  his  army 
scattered;  he  himself  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  mur- 
dered as  he  sought  to  land.     But  lesser  commanders  held 
out  in  the  various  provinces  against  the  victor  and  he  was 
compelled  to  make  a  series  of  campaigns  against  them. 
First,  the  east  was  brought  into  order.     In  Egypt,  Cleo-  Caesar 
patra  and  her  brother  Ptolemy,  descendants  of  the  old  J^]fe 
Greek  rulers,  were  placed  on  the  throne  under  Roman  world, 
protection.     A  battle  at  Zela  (47  B.C.)  overthrew  the  son 
of  Mithridates,  who  attempted  to  withstand  him.     The 
formidable  array  of  Pompeian  generals  in  Africa  was  anni- 
hilated in  the  battle  of  Thapsus  (46  B.C.).    A  last  stand 
in  Spain  was  made,  only  to  be  overthrown  in  45  B.C.,  at 
the  battle  of  Munda.     After  four  years  of  fighting,  Caesar 
was  master  of  the  situation,  and  the  opportunity  was  open 


350 


Rome's  Eastern  Empire 


His 
Death. 


His  Work 
of  Reor- 
ganization. 


Its 
Spirit. 


to  him  of  solving  the  problems  of  the  state,  which  had  been 
in  the  balance  for  nearly  a  hundred  years.  But  early  in 
45  B.C.  (March  15)  he  was  assassinated  in  the  senate- 


house  by  a  band  of  conspirators,  led  by  Gaius  Cassius 
and  a  favorite  friend,  Marcus  Brutus,  and  the  Roman 
world  again  plunged  into  anarchy. 

420.  In  the  intervals  of  his  campaigns,  however,  Caesar 
set  himself  to  re-establish  public  order  and  civil  adminis- 
tration both  by  his  example  and  spirit  and  by  his  laws, 
(i)  His  attitude  toward  his  enemies  was  an  astonishingly 
mild  one.  No  murders,  no  wholesale  seizure  of  property, 
no  gratifying  of  personal  grudges  marked  his  victory;  on 
the  contrary,  forgiveness  of  injuries  and  the  employment 
of  vanquished  opponents  in  state  service  was  the  rule. 
This  can  only  mean  that  the  welfare  of  the  state  and  not 


Ccesar's  Administration  351 

personal  ambition  ruled  his  spirit.     (2)  He  recognized 
his  victory  as  the  supremacy  of  the  magistracy  over  the  The 
other  organs  of  state-life.     The  senate  and  the  people  had  JJfp«8^ 
alike  failed  to  administer  affairs  with  success.     Now  it 
was  the  turn  of  the  magistrate.    The  senate  was  reduced 
to  its  legitimate  place  as  his  adviser.     To  this  end  it  was 
enlarged  to  900  members,  made  more  representative  by 
being  drawn  from  various  ranks  of  society  and  districts 
of  the  Empire;  even  "half-barbarian  Gauls"  were  there. 
The  people  exercised  its  functions  of  law-giving  and  elec- 
tion under  his  bidding  and  direction.     (3)  He  gathered 
all  the  magisterial  powers  into  his  own  hand.     The  par-   He  is 
ticular  office  by  which  he  ruled  the  state  was  that  of  die-  Magistrate 
tator,   but  he  combined  with  it  consular,   proconsular, 
tribunician  and  censorial  powers,  all  of  which  were  con- 
ferred upon  him  by  senate  and  people.     (4)  The  unifi-   Hisim- 
cation  of  the  Empire  was  one  of  his  chief  aims.    The  JUJ^J*** 
centralization  of  magisterial  powers  in  himself  enabled  Reaiiza- 
him  to  hold  all  affairs  in  his  own  hands  and  direct  them 
himself.     The  chief  outward  sign  of  this  was  his  favorite 
title,  Imperator.     As  Imperator  he  possessed  an  imperium 
above  and  inclusive  of  that  of  other  magistrates.*    Hence, 
he  alone  ruled  the  provinces  and  he  was  head  of  the  city 
government.     His    measures    indicated    his    ideals,     (a) 
Citizenship  was  conferred  on  a  wider  scale  than  ever  be- 
fore.    The  Gauls  across  the  Po,  colonies  in  the  provinces 
and  worthy  persons  among  the  provincials  were  given 
full  rights  and  the  Latin  right  was  conferred  upon  others. 
(b)  Municipal  government  (§  341)  was  granted  to  many 
cities  in  Italy  that  hitherto  had  not  possessed  it.     (c)  New 
colonies  were  established  at  Corinth  and  Carthage  and 

*  This  is  called  the  majus  imperium. 


352  Rome's  Eastern  Empire 

decaying  colonies  and  towns  were  revived  by  new  settlers. 
(d)  The  city  populace  of  Rome  was  curbed,  political  clubs 
were  abolished,  the  number  of  those  receiving  state  grain 
was  cut  down  one  half;  Rome  began  to  be  reduced  from 
the  position  of  a  sovereign  of  subject  lands  to  the  place  of 
a  leading  city,  or  capital,  of  an  Empire,  (e)  The  soldiers 
of  his  armies  were  settled  on  lands  obtained  without  con- 
fiscation. Thus  law,  rights,  order  and  prosperity,  com- 
mon to  all,  began  to  appear  throughout  the  one  Empire. 
(5)  Outside  of  political  affairs,  the  activities  of  Caesar 
were  notable.  He  reformed  the  calendar  by  substituting 
for  the  indefinite  lunar  year  the  exact  sun  year  of  365^ 

other          days.     Public  works  were  undertaken  both  for  the  benefit 

Activities.  o£  ^g  state  an(j  the  employment  of  needy  citizens.  Chief 
among  these  was  the  Julian  Forum,  adorned  with  the 
temple  of  Venus,  his  patron  goddess.  We  are  told  that 
he  planned  other  extensive  projects  for  beautifying  the 
city  and  benefiting  Italy,  such  as  erecting  a  temple  to  Mars 
and  a  theatre,  establishing  public  libraries,  draining  the 
Pomptine  marshes  and  the  Fucine  lake,  building  a  road 
over  the  Apennines,  codifying  the  laws;  but  his  death 
left  them  uncompleted. 

Literature        421.  Caesar's  genius  was  many-sided,  almost  universal. 

m^His  -rjj-g  pOSSesse(j  striking  literary  power  in  an  age  c  f  vigorous 
intellectual  activity.  Some  of  the  chief  ornaments  of  Ro- 
man literature  flourished  in  his  own  day,  but  he  shone 

Lucretius,  as  brightly  as  any.  Two  Roman  poets,  Lucretius  and 
Catullus,  belong  to  his  time.  Lucretius  is  famous  for 
his  philosophical  poem  On  the  Nature  o]  Things,  dealing 
with  the  origin  and  history  of  the  world  and  man,  on  the 
principles  of  the  Epicurean  philosophy  (§  293).  Not  only 
is  its  insight  into  truth  remarkable,  but  the  poetical  power 


Literature  in  this  Age  353 

displayed  is  rich  and  strong.  Catullus  was  a  lyric  poet  Catullus, 
who  died  at  thirty,  but  left  behind  him  poems  whose  lines 
are  so  delicate,  original  and  touching  as  to  rank  him 
among  the  greatest  lyrists  of  the  world.  Supreme  in  the 
realm  of  prose  was  Cicero  (§  411),  who  sprang  into  fame  Cicero, 
as  an  orator  by  his  prosecution  of  Verres,  the  corrupt 
Roman  governor  of  Sicily,  and  advanced  it  by  a  long  series 
of  legal  and  political  speeches  like  those  against  Catiline 
(§412).  In  another  sphere,  that  of  political,  literary  and 
philosophical  treatises,  he  wrote  works  such  as  those  On 
Oratory,  On  the  State,  On  the  Nature  of  God,  On  Old  Age* 
These  masterpieces  are  not  only  notable  for  their  ideas, 
they  are  most  significant  in  their  marvellous  mastery  of 
the  Latin  tongue,  the  majestic  roll  of  their  sentences,  the 
music  of  their  phrases,  the  strength  and  variety  of  their 
vocabulary.  He  made  Latin  the  vehicle  of  expression 
for  the  widest  and  highest  thought,  the  medium  of  utter- 
ance for  generations  of  scholars  and  thinkers  to  come.  c«sar 
Among  such  men  Caesar  was  also  famous.  As  an  orator,  ^r*ter 
there  were  those  who  placed  him  on  a  level  with  Cicero. 
But  the  world  knows  him  best  in  literature  by  his  unrivalled 
narratives  of  his  campaigns.  His  Commentaries,  notes 
or  jottings  on  the  Gallic  War  and  the  Civil  War,  are  ex- 
pressed in  terse,  vivid,  clear  Latin,  "the  model  and  de- 
spair of  later  historians."  The  only  man  of  the  time  who 
approached  him  was  Sallust,  one  of  his  younger  contem-  saiiust 
poraries  and  a  trusted  officer,  whose  model  for  historical 
writing  was  Thucydides  (§  203).  His  chief  work  was  his 
History  of  his  own  times  from  the  death  of  Sulla.  Only 
a  few  fragments  of  it  remain,  but  two  brief  treatises,  one 
on  the  war  with  Jugurtha  and  the  other  on  the  conspiracy 
of  Catiline,  have  survived.  They  show  considerable  lit- 


354  Rome's  Eastern  Empire 

erary  power  and  an  admirable  sense  for  historic  truth. 
Lesser  lights  of  the  time  were  Cornelius  Nepos,  the  biog- 
rapher, and  Varro,  the  learned  antiquarian,  whose  trea- 
ises  on  old  Roman  life  and  manners,  though  preserved  in 
fragments,  have  been  of  great  value  to  modern  students. 
Caesar's  422.  Yet,  as  soldier  and  statesman,  Caesar  stands  pre- 

Geniu™6  eminent.  He  possessed  four  gifts  to  an  extraordinary 
Analyzed,  degree,  (i)  Quickness  of  insight  and  an  almost  preter- 
natural ability  to  choose  the  right  course  to  success.  (2) 
A  breadth  of  view  which  saw  things  in  their  widest  issues 
and  could  devise  measures  on  a  scale  proportionate  to 
the  problem  to  be  solved.  (3)  Immense  capacity  for 
toil.  (4)  Marvellous  power  to  draw  men  to  himself,  to 
fire  them  with  his  own  enthusiasm  and  to  set  them  at 
work.  Any  one  of  these  gifts  makes  a  strong  man;  all 
of  them  combined  made  Caesar  the  foremost  man  of  his 
time  and  one  of  the  few  greatest  men  of  all  times.  His 
only  parallel  in  the  ancient  world  is  Alexander  of  Mace- 
don.  Like  that  hero,  he  closes  one  chapter  of  world- 
history  and  opens  another.  He  changed  the  face  of  things. 
and  the  world  has  ever  since  borne  the  impress  of  his  mar- 
vellous achievement. 


OUTLINE  FOR  REVIEW 
III.   THE   EMPIRE   OF  ROME 

I.  The  Making  of  Rome.     2.  Rome's  Western  Empire. 

3.  ROME'S  EASTERN  EMPIRE.  The  wars  that  conquered  the  East — 
the  effect  of  money  and  eastern  civilization  on  Rome — the  be- 
ginning of  civil  strife — Tiberius  Gracchus  and  his  platform 
— Caius  Gracchus  (against  the  Senate,  the  franchise  question) 
— failure  of  the  Senate  (war  with  Jugurtha) — Marius  and  the 
democracy — the  northern  invaders — military  reforms — individual 
leaders,  men  of  war — Drusus  and  the  Social  War — its  result — • 


Rome's  Eastern  Empire  355 

Sulla — the  war  with  Mithridates — Sulla  in  power  at  Rome — his 
legislation  and  its  outcome — demands  of  the  provinces — rise  of 
Pompey — his  Eastern  command — rise  of  Cicero  and  Caesar — 
conspiracy  of  Catiline  and  Cicero's  triumph — Pompey  in  the 
East — return  and  first  Triumvirate — confusion  at  Rome — Caesar 
in  Gaul — Pompey  takes  the  senatorial  side — Caesar  crosses  the 
Rubicon — Pharsalus — death  of  Caesar — his  work  of  reorgani- 
zation (spirit,  imperialism,  centred  on  himself,  his  measures) — 
literature  of  the  time — Caesar  the  foremost  man  of  antiquity. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  were  the  following  im- 
portant: Drusus,  Jugurtha,  Sertorius,  Luca,  the  Rubicon, 
Lucretius?  2.  What  is  meant  by  Triumvirate,  Italica,  Agra- 
rian law,  majus  imperium,  populares?  3.  Who  were  the 
two  leading  Scipios  and  how  did  they  receive  their  names  of 
Africanus  and  /Emilianus?  4.  Trace  the  careers  of  the  fol- 
lowing through  the  period:  Marius,  Sulla,  Pompey,  Cicero, 
Caesar.  5.  What  was  the  date  of  Caesar's  death? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  the  parties  at  Rome  in 
origin,  aims  and  character  with  those  at  Athens  in  the  fifth 
century  (§§  146, 165, 195, 199,  217,  218).  2.  With  what  Greek 
statesman  and  soldier  would  you  compare  Sulla  (see  Plutarch's 
choice)?  3.  In  Plates  XI  and  XVIII  compare  the  heads  of 
Alexander  and  Cesar  and  draw  some  conclusions. 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  The 
Roman  Constitution  by  the  Year  133.  Munro,  pp.  47-52 
(source);  Horton,  ch.  19.  2.  The  Gracchi  and  Their  Times. 
Plutarch,  Lives  of  the  Gracchi;  Morey,  ch.  19;  Seignobos,  ch. 
13;  Botsford,  pp.  151-160;  How  and  Leigh,  chs.  33-36;  Wolf- 
son,  ch.  28;  Shuckburgh,  ch.  35.  3.  The  Politics  of  the 
Gracchi.  Abbott,  pp.  94-98.  4.  The  Times  of  Marius  and 
Sulla.  Morey,  ch.  20;  Seignobos,  ch.  14;  Botsford,  pp.  160-174; 
Wolfson,  ch.  29.  5.  The  Numidian  War.  Myres,  pp.  360- 
368;  How  and  Leigh,  pp.  360-371.  6.  The  Cimbri  and  Teu- 
tones.  Myres,  pp.  368-372;  Horton,  ch.  23.  7.  Military 
Reforms  of  Marius.  Myres,  pp.  378-380;  How  and  Leigh, 
pp.  378-380.  8.  The  Social  War.  How  and  Leigh,  ch.  39; 
Shuckburgh,  pp.  589-592.  9.  The  Constitution  of  Sulla. 
Morey,  pp.  176-179;  Abbott,  pp.  104-107;  How  and  Leigh, 
ch.  44;  Myres,  ch.  35.  10.  Times  of  Pompey  and  Caesar. 
Morey,  ch.  2 1 ;  Botsford,  pp.  175-196.  11.  Pompey  in  the  East. 


356  Rome's  Eastern  Empire 

Shuckburgh,  ch.  42;  How  and  Leigh,  ch.  46.  12.  Conspiracy 
of  Catiline.  How  and  Leigh,  ch.  47.  13.  Caesar  in  Gaul. 
How  and  Leigh,  ch.  49;  Shuckburgh,  ch.  44.  14.  Caesar, 
Pompey  and  the  Senate.  Abbott,  pp.  114-116;  Myres,  ch.  41. 
15.  The  Legislation  of  Caesar.  Abbott,  pp.  129-138;  Hor- 
ton,  ch.  30;  Morey,  pp.  197-200;  West,  pp.  377-382;  How 
and  Leigh,  ch.  52.  16.  Roman  Literature  of  this  Period. 
Laing  (quotations  and  biographies),  pp.  63-197;  Mackail,  pp. 
39-88.  *fcj 

GENERAL    REVIEW  OF    PART   III,  DIVISIONS  1  AND  2 

500-44   B.C. 

TOPICS  FOR  CLASS  DISCUSSION.  1.  An  outline  of  the  main 
points  of  Roman  History  in  chronological  order  from  the  point 
of  view  of  Rome's  relation  to  outside  peoples.  2.  A  similar  out- 
line from  the  point  of  view  of  Rome's  inner  life.  3.  The  Peo- 
ples that  contributed  to  Rome's  greatness,  arranged  chronologi- 
cally with  examples  (§§  311,  313,  315,  330,  365,  381,  385-389. 
393).  4.  The  most  important  dates  in  Roman  History  to  44  B.C. 

5.  The  changes  appearing  in  Rome's  attitude  toward  outside 
peoples  (§§  325,  326,  335,  336,  358,  371,  375-378,  407,  420). 

6.  Roman  Farming  and  the  Farmer — as  illustrating  the  history 
(§§  3J4>   329»   346,   365,   381,   384).     7.  Development  of  the 
Roman  Army  (§§  316,  344,  399).     8.  A  List  of  the  Great 
Men  of  Rome  in  the  different  periods  of  her  history  to  44  B.C. 
9.  Roman  citizenship  in  the  various  periods  of  Roman  history 
(§§  34i.  391.  394.  402).     10.  An  enumeration  of  the  influ- 
ences and  tendencies  that  from  the  beginning  of  the  state  led 
up  to  Caesar's  supremacy  (§§  339,  366,  394,  395,  400,  407). 
11.  The  history  of  the  influence  of  commerce  on  Roman  history 
(§§  306,  312,  335,  336,  358,  377,  378,  382,  394,  408,  413). 

MAP  AND  PICTURE  EXERCISES.  1.  Prepare  a  map  of  Repub- 
lican Rome  to  accompany  Paper  No.  3  below.  2.  Compare 
the  Oriental  heads  in  Plate  II  with  the  heads  of  Caesar  and 
Cicero  in  Plate  XVIII.  3.  In  the  same  way  compare  the  two 
Roman  heads  with  the  Greek  heads  in  Plate  XI.  4.  Make  a 
plan  of  the  Roman  Forum  and  use  it  to  illustrate  Plate  XVII. 
5.  Prepare  a  map  of  the  Mediterranean  world  to  show — toy 
different  colored  pencils  or  inks — the  expansion  of  Rome  in 
each  of  the  three  periods  to  44  B.C.  6.  On  Plate  XVI  study 


Survey  of  the  New  Period  357 

the  Human  coins  of  this  age  and  compare  them  with  the  Greek 
coins  of  Plate  XV.    (See  Appendix  II.) 

SUBJECTS    FOR   WRITTEN    PAPERS.     I.  The  Roman  Magis- 
trate— His  Position,  Powers  and  Duties.    Abbott,  pp.  150-173. 

2.  The  Aidile — His  Powers  and  Duties.    Abbott,  pp.  202-206. 

3.  The  City  of  Rome  down  to  44  B.C.    Merivale,  ch.  78.    4.  The 
Roman  Senate— its  Position,  Powers  and  Duties.    Abbott,  pp. 
220-243;  Fowler,  City  State,  ch.  8.     5.  Rome's  Treatment  of 
Spain  as  Illustrative  of  its  Dealing  with  Conquered  Peoples. 
How  and  Leigh,  pp.  240-245,  464-466;    Shuckburgh,  pp.  458- 
463>  538-S45'     6-  Roman  Slavery  as  Testified  to  by  the  Ro- 
mans Themselves.      Sources  in  Munro,  pp.  179-192.     7.  The 
Carthaginian  Empire.     Mommsen,  History  of  Rome, Vol.  II,  Bk. 
3,ch.  i.     8.  Roman  Roads.    Dictionaries  of  Antiquities,  articles 
"Via,"  or  "Roads";  Guhland  Koner,  pp.  341-344;  Johnston,  pp. 
282-287.     9.  The  Story  of  Terence's  "Phormio"  as  Illustrative 
of  Roman  Comedy.   Laing,  pp.  4-62.    10.  How  was  Justice  Ad- 
ministered at  Rome?   Abbott  (§§  65,  87, 96,  100, 182, 189,  200- 
203,  222,  236,  251,  309).    11.  Some  Roman  Traditional  Stories: 
(a)  The  Secessions  of  the  Plebeians,     (b)  The  Caudine  Forks. 
Munro,  pp.  74-77.    (c)  Cincinnatus.    Botsford,  Story  of  Rome; 
Yonge,  Stories  of  Roman  History;  Church,  Stories  from  Livy. 
12.  An  Estimate  of  Caesar  Written  by  Pompey.     13.  The  Ro- 
man Equites  (Knights) — History  and  Privileges.    Dictionaries 
of  Antiquities,  under  the   name;    Greenidge,  "Roman   Public 
Life,"  index  under  name.     14.  The  Financial  Administration  of 
the  State.      Abbott  (§§    184,  213,  239,    280;    Greenidge,  pp. 
229-232,  286-287).     15.  "We  ought  to  be  thankful  to  Caesar 
every  day  that  we  live."    Justify  this  remark. 


4.— ROME'S    WORLD-EMPIRE 

44  B.C.-A.D.  800 

423.  The  era  of  expansion  beginning  with  200  B.C.  had  PRELIMI 
put  Rome  in  possession  of  the  cotmtries  where  the  main  SURVEY 
current  of  historic  life  had  hitherto  run  its  course.    A 
World-Empire  had  arisen,  stretching  from  the  Euphrates 
to  the  Atlantic     The  problem,  again  thrown  into  the 


The 

Problem 
and  its 
Solution. 


358    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

arena  by  Caesar's  murder,  was  the  administration  of  that 
Empire;  the  course  of  the  following  epochs  of  ancient 
history  is  the  solution  of  that  problem — the  government 
of  the  Roman  world. 


The 
Principate. 


The 
Despotism. 


The 

Barbarian 

Invasions. 


Charle- 
magne. 


The  End. 


Divisions 
of  the 
Period. 


After  a  brief  period  of  confusion  and  warfare  (44-31  B.C.),  Oc- 
tavius,  nephew  of  Julius  Caesar,  emerged  as  sole  successor  of  his 
uncle,  and  the  state  was  reorganized  under  the  joint  rule  of  Octavius 
and  the  senate.  As  Octavius,  who  was  given  the  honorary  title  of 
Augustus,  regarded  his  position  as  that  of  first  citizen  (princeps)  in 
the  state,  the  government  thus  established  is  called  the  Principate. 
It  endured,  with  some  modifications,  for  three  centuries  (31  B.C.- 
A.D.  284) — a  series  of  successors  of  Augustus  sharing  with  the  senate 
the  administration  of  the  state.  During  this  time  the  power  of  the 
Princeps,  heightened  by  the  demands  of  administration  and  the  ne- 
cessities of  war,  steadily  grew  greater  than  that  of  the  senate. 

Finally,  in  284  B.C.,  an  able  ruler,  Diocletian,  did  away  with  this 
dual  system;*  the  powers  of  the  senate  were  abolished  and  the  Prin- 
ceps became  absolute  monarch.  The  state  was  thoroughly  reorgan- 
ized. A  successor,  Constantine,  removed  the  capital  from  Rome  to  a 
new  city  in  the  east,  Constantinople.  But,  meanwhile,  new  peoples 
had  been  gathering  on  the  borders  of  the  Empire,  particularly  the 
Teutonic  (German)  tribes  on  the  north.  In  the  struggle  to  maintain 
itself  against  these,  the  imperial  authority  was  shaken.  In  A.D.  395 
these  "barbarians"  began  to  pour  into  the  Empire  in  overwhelming 
numbers.  From  that  time  the  history  of  the  Roman  state  is  the  his- 
tory of  a  slowly  dissolving  structure,  until  in  A.D.  800  Charlemagne, 
a  king  of  a  Teutonic  people,  the  Franks,  who  had  built  up  a  strong 
kingdom  in  Gaul,  was  crowned  by  the  pope  at  Rome,  Emperor  of  the 
Romans.  With  this  coronation  the  Teutonic  people  take  charge  of 
the  destinies  of  the  old  Roman  state  and  bring  new  elements  into  the 
history  of  the  world  that  mark  the  end  of  the  ancient  period. 

Thus  the  history  of  the  period  falls  into  three  main 
epochs. 

*  This  joint  rule  of  Caesar  and  the  senate  is  sometimes  called  by  a 
Greek  term,  Dyarchy. 


B.C.       CHART  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  ROME'S  WORLD-EMPIRE.       31  B.C.-284A.D. 


27  The  Republic  re-established.     Octavl 
23  New  form  of  government.    The  Dyai 

12  Death  of  Agrlppa.. 
8  Death  of  Maecenas. 

us  called  Augustus.    The  Prlnclpate  begins. 
25  Provinces  of  Oatatla  and  Pamphylla. 
chy  finally  establlslied. 
li  Gaul  given  provincial  government 
'Raetla  and  Norleuni.p_rov.lnce8. 

1     Campaign  of  Drusus  In  Germany. 

4  Adoption  of  Tiberius. 
'"'"•  ilH                     "          «              Sejanus  In  power.      „- 

9  Defeat  ofVarus  by  Armlulus. 
10  Panuoula  a  province. 
|^}Campalgn  of  Germaulcus  In  Geriuauy. 

•  1'ul.lir  Minist 

I  A 
*-i37                   -      1 

' 

'T 

1        i;J                          y      ,                                                   (U  Burning  of  Rnma. 

66  Re  von  of  Jews. 
70  Titus  captures  Jerusalem. 

Persecution  of  Christians'., 

3      5|2.  ir        lip  Destruction  of  Pompeii 
L_,8l                                                         aud.Herculane.urn. 

H  -  ,,          &f  1 

aS  Agrlcola  victor  In  Britain. 

>-L±,. 

X         ,  '  T 

101 
1     Conquest  of  Dacla. 

UL  Trajan  !s  wars  In  the  East. 

1  Journey*  of  Hadrian. 

.\IIIu      ijlHH    PilH 

U        I 

16.6  Pestilence  devastates  the  Empire. 
'       n  '   A'"  "!  ""                                                                                              1  Wars  with  the  Marcomanni. 

1  1  .  ,                                         in  Persecution  of  Christians. 
,   id  oi 

r 

best  bidder. 

1                                         ' 

T  Campaigns  In  Britain. 
,  \                                                      212  Jffi  freemen  m.fle  Roman  ClVlien..     1U  AUlU"""  """^ 

Elas  .1                                         jg  ,' 

\          .                                       11° 

226  The  Sassaulans  In  Persia.    . 

250  Persecution  of  Christians, 

250  Invasions  of  Goths. 
260  Emperor  Valerian  captured  by  Parthlaus. 

272  Zenobla  subdued. 

Probiwjaud  others 

The  Problem  after  Ccesars  Death      359 

1.  The  World- Empire  under  the  Principate,  44  B.C.- 
A.D.  284. 

2.  The  World- Empire  under  the  Despotism,  A.D.  284- 

395- 

3.  The  Breaking-up  of  the  World-Empire  and  the  End 
of  the  Ancient  Period,  A.D.  395-800. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY* 

For  bibliography  for  advanced  students  and  teachers,  see  Appendix  I. 

BURY.  The  Student's  Roman  Empire;  to  tfie  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 
American  Book  Co.  Full  of  matter,  well  written,  an  invaluable 
work  of  reference,  rather  too  detailed  for  continuous  reading  by  the 
beginner. 

GIBBON.  The  Student's  Gibbon.  American  Book  Co.  This  well- 
known  abridgment  of  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  should  be  constantly  in  the  hands  of  the  student  for  the 
period  with  which  it  deals. 

MERIVALE.  General  History  oj  Rome  to  476  A.D.  American  Book  Co. 
Merivale  becomes  especially  useful  in  the  imperial  period;  his  nar- 
rative is  full  and  clear,  though  the  organization  of  his  material  is 
defective. 


(i)    THE  WORLD-EMPIRE  UNDER  THE 
PRINCIPATE 
44  B.C.-A.D.  284 

424.  The  dozen  years  (44-31  B.C.)  that  followed  Caesar's  After 
murder  were  filled  with  turmoil  and  struggle.  Those  who 
hoped  that  the  senate  would  resume  control  of  the  gov- 
ernment were  soon  undeceived.  Antony,  consul  at  the 
time  of  Caesar's  death,  came  forward  as  his  avenger,  and 
by  his  side  soon  appeared  Octavius,  the  grand-nephew 

*  For  previous  bibliographies  see  pp.  4,  10,  75,  249. 


360    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

and  heir  of  Caesar,*  a  youth  who,  though  but  nineteen 
years  of  age,  showed  uncommon  prudence  and  energy. 
These  two  united  with  themselves  Lepidus,  whom  Caesar 
had  appointed  to  the  province  of  Transalpine  Gaul,  a 
man  of  little  force  or  insight.  Supported  by  the  legions, 
The  second  they  compelled  the  senate  to  appoint  them  a  Triumvirate 
virate1"  ^or  settling  the  affairs  of  the  state  (43  B.C.).  Acting  in 
this  capacity,  they  avenged  themselves  on  their  enemies  in 
Rome  and  filled  the  city  with  blood.  Their  most  illustrious 
victim  was  Cicero,  whose  brilliant  orations  f  against 
Antony  in  the  senate,  a  few  months  before,  had  aroused 
Phiiippi.  his  hatred.  At  the  battle  of  Philippi  (42  B.C.)  they  over- 
threw the  armies  of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  who  had  led  the 
conspirators  against  Caesar.  Then  Antony  and  Octa- 
vius,  shelving  Lepidus,  set  about  their  task  of  settling  af- 
fairs, Antony  taking  the  east  and  Octavius  the  west. 
Antony  failed  to  manage  his  share  of  the  administration 
successfully;  he  became  entangled  with  Cleopatra,  Queen 
of  Egypt,  and  let  matters  go  at  loose  ends.  Moreover, 
Actium  he  quarrelled  with  Octavius.  Finally,  the  two  met  in 
battle  at  Actium  (31  B.C.),  where  Antony  was  beaten. 
He  fled  to  Egypt  with  Cleopatra  and  there  both  perished 
by  suicide.  Octavius  alone  remained  at  the  head  of  the 
state. 

The  Prob-        425.  The  questions  that  had  faced  Caesar  now  confronted 
Octavius.      Octavius — how  should  the  state  be  reorganized,  and  what 
place  should  he  occupy  in  it  ?    For  answering  these  ques- 
tions he  possessed  little  of  the  genius  of  his  uncle,  that  far- 
seeing  eye,  that  quick  grasp  of  all  the  elements  in  the  situa- 

*  As  adopted  son  of  Caesar  his  name  was  Octavianus. 
•f  These  orations  were  called  Philippics  in  recollection  of  Demosthenes's 
speeches  against  Philip  (§  249). 


The  Plan  of  Octavius  361 

tion,  that  daring  and  enthusiastic  spirit  which  did  not  shrink 

from  doing  in  its  own  way  whatever  was  to  be  done.     Yet  His  Fitness 

Octavius  had  what  was,  perhaps,  for  his  time,  a  better  to 

equipment — caution,    and    coolness,   attachment    to    the 

past,  love  of  peace  and  order,  an  iron  will  which,  however, 

was  ready  to  use  the  most  available  means  to  gain  its  way. 

With  these  qualities  he  could  not  follow  Caesar's  path— 

break  with  the  past,  gather  all  powers  into  his  own  hand 

and  rule  the  state  as  supreme  magistrate.     Had  not  that  His  Plan. 

path  led  to  assassination?    He  proposed  to  restore  the 

old  order  and  adjust  his  own  position  and  power  to  it. 

Senate,  magistrates  and  people  should  play  their  part  as 

before  in  the  conduct  of  the  state.     On  him  should  be 

conferred  extraordinary  powers  for  the  special  tasks  of 

administration  which  so  sorely  needed  attention  in  the 

vast  domains  of  the  imperial  state. 

426.  In  the  year  27  B.C.  the  arrangement  went  into  The 
force.  "I  transferred  the  state,"  he  says,  "from  my  QpTraUon. 
power  to  the  control  of  the  senate  and  people."  He  was 
given  by  them  the  proconsular  imperium  for  ten  years 
and  the  sacred  title  of  Augustus.  With  this  imperium  went 
supreme  authority  over  all  provincial  governors  and  sole 
rule  over  certain  provinces  on  the  frontiers  where  armies 
were  needed;  he  was  therefore  master  of  the  legions. 
Over  these  provinces  he  placed  lieutenants  responsible  to 
himself.  The  other  provinces  were  ruled  by  governors 
appointed  by  the  senate.*  He  already  possessed  the 
tribunician  power  and  for  some  years  continued  to  be 

*  The  place  of  Egypt  in  this  arrangement  was  peculiar.  It  was  assigned 
as  a  province  to  neither,  but  was  regarded  as  a  kind  of  private  possession 
of  Augustus.  No  senator  was  permitted  to  enter  it.  The  reason  for  this 
was,  no  doubt,  the  immense  importance  of  Egypt  to  Rome  because  of  its 
corn-supply. 


362    World-Empire  under  the  Prindpate 

elected  consul.  But,  as  it  was  not  constitutional  to  be 
consul  and  proconsul  at  the  same  time,  he  laid  down  the 
consulship  in  23  B.C.,  although  retaining  the  rank  and 
power,  preferring  to  take  part  in  civil  affairs  by  virtue  of 
his  tribunician  authority.  To  represent  his  place  in  the 
state  in  all  its  aspects  he  chose  the  title  of  Princeps  or 
"First  Citizen,"  whence  this  form  of  government  is  called 
the  Principate.  Later  he  was  also  honored  with  the  title 
of  pater  patrice,  "Father  of  his  country."  From  time 
to  time  his  proconsular  power  was  renewed,  as  the  term 
for  which  it  was  assigned  expired;  the  tribunician  power 
only  he  held  for  life.  The  people  elected  magistrates  and 
made  laws;  the  senate  administered  the  state  through 
him  and  other  officials  appointed  by  it.  Thus  Augustus 
proudly  declared  that  he  had  restored  the  republic.  His 
conduct  was  in  accordance  with  his  word.  In  the  city 
he  wore  the  toga  of  a  citizen  and  lived  in  his  simple  home 
on  the  Palatine,  wearing  the  clothes  woven  by  the  women 
of  his  family.  No  escort  accompanied  him  about  the 
streets  except  such  as  became  a  magistrate,  and  every 
citizen  could  consult  him  without  ceremony. 

427.  The  advantages  of  this  arrangement  were  clear  and 
its  beneficial  results  immediate.     A  sense  of  security  and 
satisfaction  was  felt  everywhere.     Now,   at  last,   peace 
under  constitutional  government  was  obtained.    A  proper 
method  of  reorganizing  the  state  and  meeting  the  diffi- 
culties of  administration  was  reached.     The  evils  of  the 
time  were  met  with  strong  remedies. 

428.  The  Empire  was  set  in  order.     Here  the  central 
thought  of  Augustus  was  that  the  heart  of  the  Empire  was 
Italy,  from  the  Alps  to  Sicily.     Over  against  Italy  and 
dependent  upon  it  were  the  provinces.     It  was  the  "sacred 


The  Imperial  Organization  363 

land."  Its  economic  prosperity  revived;  waste  lands  itaiythe 
were  peopled  and  brought  under  cultivation;  disorder  Centre- 
was  put  down;  the  municipalities  were  given  free  scope 
to  organize  and  govern  themselves;  public  roads  were 
repaired.  The  dignity  of  Italian  citizenship  was  em- 
phasized. Even  the  freedmen  were  given  a  place  in  the 
public  life  by  the  institution  of  the  Augustales,  a  body  of 
six  men,  appointed  in  each  community,  who  at  their  own 
expense  exhibited  games  in  honor  of  Augustus.  To  be  an 
Augustal  was  regarded  as  a  notable  distinction  by  the 
freedmen.  Italy,  thus  set  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  state,  as 
the  model  and  glory  of  the  Empire,  was  governed  by  the 
senate.  The  provinces  were  dealt  with  in  the  same  The 
thorough  way.  Those  which  were  under  the  direct  rule 
of  Augustus  were  managed  by  his  legates  and  procura-  officials, 
tors,  men  selected  because  they  were  efficient  adminis- 
trators. They  were  dependent  on  him  for  advancement 
and  honor;  hence,  they  sought  by  good  work  to  obtain  his 
favor.  The  borders  of  the  Empire  were  protected  and  the 
internal  affairs  of  the  provinces  were  regulated.  An 
imperial  coinage,  guaranteed  by  the  state  as  pure,  was  put 
into  circulation.  The  army,  which  in  the  civil  wars  had  Army, 
reached  the  enormous  size  of  more  than  fifty  legions,  was 
reduced  to  twenty-five.  It  was  kept  on  the  frontiers 
constantly  under  arms,  trained  and  prepared  for  defence. 
It  was  under  the  direct  command  of  Augustus.  After  a 
victory,  the  soldiers  hailed,  not  their  own  general,  as  for- 
merly, but  Augustus,  as  Imperator.  Only  Roman  citi- 
zens could  serve  in  the  legions.  Provincials  were  em- 
ployed as  auxiliaries.  Each  legion  had  its  particular  name 
and  usually  its  permanent  quarters  in  a  special  province. 
By  virtue  of  being  commander-in- chief,  Augustus,  like 


364    World-Empire  under  the  Principatc 

other  generals,  had  his  body-guard  (the  cohors  pmloria) ; 
as  he  lived  at  Rome,  his  guard  was  stationed  in  the  city; 
it  was  the  "praetorian  cohort,"  and  under  its  two  pre- 
fects or  commanders  had  much  influence  in  the  state.  The 

Finances,  finances  of  the  provinces  were  established  on  a  firm  basis. 
All  the  income  from  the  provinces  under  Augustus  came 
into  his  treasury,  called  the  Fiscus*  and  he  had  sole 
power  over  its  management.  Hence,  there  was  no  more 
stealing  of  public  money  by  officials.  A  map  of  the 
Empire  was  prepared,  showing  the  chief  towns  and 
roads  of  every  province;  a  census  was  taken  of  the  greater 
provinces,  perhaps  of  all.  The  farming  of  taxes  with  all 
its  abominations  was  greatly  restricted.  The  land  tax  and 
the  poll  tax,  the  two  direct  taxes  levied,  were  collected  by 
the  state;  the  "publican"  (§  379)  still  dealt  in  the  customs 
and  other  like  imposts.  Thus  a  business  administration 
was  established  which  saved  money  and  gave  the  state 
abundant  revenues.  Augustus  spent  this  money  freely 
on  imperial  roads  and  buildings  throughout  the  Empire. 
By  these  means  he  created  new  bonds  of  unity  which  held 
the  Roman  world  together  as  never  before  and  brought 
about  the  extension  of  Roman  civilization  from  end  to 
end  of  it.  We  can  hardly  conceive  the  immense  advan- 
tage to  the  provinces  of  this  stable  and  beneficent  gov- 
ernment. 

Foreign  429.  The  policy  of  Augustus  with  respect  to  the  peo- 

ohcy'  pies  outside  the  Roman  world  was  in  general  a  very  pru- 

The  East,  dent  one.  In  the  East  he  had  no  desire  to  follow  up  the 
project  of  Julius  Caesar  for  a  war  with  Parthia.  He  was 
content  by  skilful  negotiation  to  obtain  the  return  of  the 

*  The  word  means  "  basket " ;  in  Roman  households  the  money-box 
was  a  basket. 


THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE 

IN  THE 
TIME  OF   AUGUSTUS. 

0  1UO  200  300          400  500 

Scale  of  Miles. 


]  Boundaries  of  Roman  Empire  at  death  of  Julius  Caesar, 
j Territory   added  by  Augustus. 
]  States  allied  to  Koine. 
]  Senatorial  Provinces. 


Foreign  Policy  of  Augustus          365 

battle-flags  lost  by  Crassus  (§  415  )and  to  increase  by  peace- 
ful ways  the  influence  of  Rome  beyond  the  Euphrates. 
In  the  west  and  south  he  devoted  himself  rather  to  re-  The  west, 
organization  than  to  expansion.  Gaul  was  divided  into 
provinces  and  thoroughly  Romanized  by  public  roads, 
commerce  and  law.  Spain  was  subdivided  into  three 
provinces  and  completely  brought  under  Roman  control. 
In  the  years  to  come  some  of  Rome's  greatest  citizens 
had  their  homes  in  these  western  lands.  On  the  north  The  North. 
the  problem  was  more  difficult.  The  dangers  from  the 
restless  Teutonic  peoples  made  necessary  an  advance  into 
this  region  until  a  defensible  frontier  should  be  reached 
and  the  nations  bordering  on  it  brought  under  Roman 
influence.  The  natural  boundary  in  the  northeast  was 
the  Danube;  thither  Augustus  pushed  forward  his  line. 
Four  new  provinces  were  formed:  Moesia,  Pannonia, 
Noricum  and  Rhaetia,  extending  from  the  Black  sea  to 
the  sources  of  the  Danube.  Connecting  with  these  on  the 
north  and  northwest  the  shortest  boundary  would  be 
made  by  the  Elbe.  Augustus  advanced  across  the  Rhine 
to  establish  his  frontiers  on  that  river.  By  these  means 
it  was  felt  that  the  most  dangerous  border  of  the  Roman 
world  would  be  safely  guarded. 

430.  Augustus  had  clear  notions  of  the  spirit  which  (2)  Soda* 
should  inspire  the  state.  He  proposed  to  revive  the  old 
Roman  ideals.  The  simple  life  of  duty  to  the  gods  and 
service  to  the  state  was  again  to  be  supreme  in  Roman 
society.  He  encouraged  marriage  and  the  rearing  of 
children;  divorce,  which  had  grown  so  alarmingly  com- 
mon, and  other  forms  of  immorality,  that  were  destroy- 
ing the  purity  of  private  life  at  Rome,  were  sternly  re- 
pressed. The  different  orders  of  society  were  clearly 


366    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

classes  of  marked  off  and  fitting  tasks  were  assigned  to  each.  The 
EmpS-  senatorial  order  was  purged  of  unworthy  members  and 
sized.  set  at  its  task  of  governing  its  share  of  the  state.  By  virtue 
of  his  censorial  authority  (§  328)  admission  to  the  order 
was  made  dependent  on  the  will  of  Augustus.  From  the 
equestrian  order  he  chose  his  officials  for  the  administra- 
tion of  the  provinces  assigned  to  him.  As  possessed  of 
tribunician  power  he  guided  and  curbed  the  Roman  popu- 
lace and  endeavored  to  inspire  in  them  interest  in  the 
elections  and  in  the  government  of  the  city.  Perhaps  his 
Revival  of  supreme  passion  was  the  restoration  of  the  old  Roman 
Religion.  reiigiolli  Ancient  temples  were  rebuilt  and  the  venerable 
worship  was  revived  in  stately  splendor.  In  12  B.C.  he 
became  Pontifex  Maximus,  the  head  of  the  Roman  church. 
New  and  rich  endowments  were  provided  for  the  priestly 
colleges.  The  worship  of  the  Lares  (§  314),  which,  above 
all  else,  was  typical  of  the  old  faith,  was  revived.  Three 
hundred  of  their  shrines  were  raised  along  the  streets  of 
the  city  and  twice  a  year  they  were  adorned  with  flowers. 
By  all  this  he  sought  to  show  that  it  was  the  ancient  gods 
who  had  raised  him  to  power  and  had  brought  peace, 
order  and  prosperity  to  the  world.  His  plans  largely 
succeeded.  Religion,  as  the  old  Roman  conceived  it, 
in  its  best  sense,  lived  again.  The  altars  smoked  anew 
with  sacrifices. 

Literature  431.  Corresponding  to  the  glad  sense  of  order  and  peace, 
literature  and  art  took  on  new  life.  One  of  the  world's 
Vergil.  greatest  poets,  Publius  Vergilius  Maro  (70-19  B.C.), 
adorned  the  Augustan  age.  His  poems,  the  Eclogues 
picturing  pastoral  life,  the  Georgics,  in  praise  of  agricult- 
ure, and  his  chief  work,  the  ^Eneid,  an  epic  which  glori- 
fies the  beginnings  of  Rome,  are  all  full  of  the  spirit  and 


Vergil,  Livy,  Horace  367 

ideals  that  inspired  Augustus.  The  religion  that  made 
Rome  great,  the  sturdy  faith  and  stalwart  patriotism  that 
filled  her  sons  with  might — these  he  hallowed  in  melodious 
verse  and  touching  pictures,  which  gave  him  wondrous 
popularity  then,  and  have  made  his  name  immortal  in  the 
world  of  poetry.  His  conception  of  the  world-wide  mis- 
sion of  Rome,  her  imperial  destiny  and  the  certainty  of 
its  success  in  the  hands  of  Augustus,  contributed  mightily 
to  the  strength  of  the  new  regime.  He  was  worthily 
seconded  by  the  historian,  Titus  Livius  (SQB.C.-A.D.  17),  Liv» 
who  used  all  materials  which  had  come  down  to  him  from 
the  past  to  write  his  Roman  History  in  142  books,  from 
Rome's  beginning  to  A.D.  9.  He  idealized  the  old  days 
and  found  consolation  for  the  evils  of  the  present  only 
in  a  return  to  the  sobriety,  fidelity  and  heroism  of  the  past. 
The  legends  of  early  Rome  he  retells  without  criticism  of 
their  truth,  and  throws  a  halo  of  splendor  over  the  days 
of  the  republic.  With  strong  imagination  and  romantic 
temper  he  pictures  the  noble  men  and  stirring  scenes  of 
early  times.  His  style  is  full  and  flowing,  and  he  is  pos- 
sessed of  a  fine  literary  art  which  expresses  itself  in  the 
picturesque  grouping  of  his  intensely  human  characters. 
Unfortunately,  only  a  small  part  of  his  great  work  has 
been  preserved.  Another  literary  light  was  Quintus 
Horatius  Flaccus  (65  B.C.-A.D.  8),  the  son  of  a  freed-  Horace 
man.  In  his  Satires  he  plays  upon  the  social  and  literary 
follies  of  the  Rome  of  his  day;  his  Epodes  are  even  more 
satirical;  he  reaches  the  height  of  his  genius  in  the  Odes 
and  Epistles.  A  genial  critic  of  life  who  sees  its  weak- 
nesses yet  loves  it,  with  few  ambitions  beyond  a  glowing 
fireside,  a  good  wine  and  a  sympathetic  friend,  a  lover  of 
nature  who  was  at  the  same  time  a  man  of  the  world — 


308    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

he  had  the  unique  power  of  putting  his  thoughts  into 
precise,  telling  phrases  and  of  fitting  them  into  lyrical 
verse  of  charming  delicacy  and  force.  Vergil,  Livy, 
Horace — these  three  have  given  an  enduring  fame  to  the 
Augustan  age,  of  which  they  are,  each  in  his  own  way,  the 
characteristic  products. 

Revival  of  432.  Monuments  in  bronze  and  marble  attested  the 
revival  of  art  in  this  time.  Augustus  himself  enlarged 
the  Forum  and  built,  among  other  temples,  that  of  Apollo 
on  the  Palatine,  of  marble  without,  and  filled  with 
statues.  From  him  also  came  the  theatre  of  Marcellus 
with  a  seating  capacity  of  20,000  persons.  Others  vied 
with  him  in  adorning  the  city.  Agrippa,  his  most  trusted 
officer,  built  the  Pantheon,  the  temple  of  Poseidon  and 
magnificent  public  baths.  It  is  said  that  Augustus  de- 
clared with  pride:  "I  received  a  city  of  brick;  I  leave  a 
city  of  marble." 

The  Cui-  433.  To  declare  the  meaning  and  greatness  of  his  work, 
Augustus  chose  the  celebration  of  the  Ludi  Saculares,  a 

The  festival  which  was  observed  every  hundred  years.    This, 

GarneT  ^e  ^^  ^me  °^  ^s  °bservance>  in  the  year  17  B.C.,  was 
one  of  singular  splendor.  For  it  Horace  wrote  a  hymn, 
the  Carmen  Saculare.  But  a  more  striking,  perhaps  the 
supreme,  illustration  of  what  he  had  done  is  seen  in  the 

Caesar-        rise  of  a  new  object  of  worship — the  Princeps  himself. 

Worship.  juims  Caesar  had  permitted  worship  to  be  offered  to  him- 
self, and  a  temple  to  the  "divine  Julius"  was  reared  after 
his  death.  Now,  especially  by  the  Orientals,  temples  and 
altars  were  raised  to  Rome  and  Augustus.  This  worship 
he  tried  to  repress,  but  in  vain.  It  expressed  too  clearly 
the  joy  and  gratitude  of  the  provincials  for  the  blessings 
which  his  administration  had  brought  to  them.  Already 


Birth  of  Jesus  Christ  369 

this  kind  of  deification  of  men  had  found  a  place  among 
the  Greeks  (§  288),  and  Caesar- worship  soon  took  its  place 
among  the  recognised  religious  cults  of  the  time  as  a 
natural  testimony  to  the  divine  character  of  the  new  Ro- 
man state,  which  rose  high  above  all  other  powers,  the 
symbol  of  universal  order  and  peace. 

434.  Amid  all  the  splendors  of   the  Augustan  age  a 

child  was  born  in  one  of  the  most  insignificant  provinces  The  Birth 
of  the  Empire  whose  sway  was  to  surpass  in  power  and  of  ^esus* 
extent  the  wildest  dreams  of  the  Caesars.  In  the  days 
of  Herod,  king  of  Judaea,  vassal  of  Augustus,  Jesus 
Christ*  was  born  in  Bethlehem  of  Judaea.  We  do  not 
know  the  year.  It  was  four  or  five  years  before  the  date 
traditionally  assigned.  Yet  our  chronology  turns  upon  it, 
for  the  years  of  the  world's  history  are  numbered  accord- 
ing as  they  precede  the  assigned  year  of  his  birth  or  follow 
it.|  Jesus  was  the  founder  of  Christianity,  the  religion 
which  was  to  play  a  large  part  in  the  history  of  the  Roman 
Empire  and  is  professed  by  the  so-called  Christian  na- 
tions of  Europe  and  America. 

435.  But  there  was  another  side  to  all  the  grandeur  of  The 

the  Augustan  age.    The  people  of  the  city  of  Rome  had  ^J^e! 
too  long  been  a  prey  to  moral  corruption  to  be  reformed  Moral 
by  example  and  precept.     Unbounded  luxury  and  gilded  c 
vice  continued  to  be  fearfully  rampant  among  the  higher 
classes.     Even  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus,  created 
scandal  by  her  loose  behavior.    The  lower  classes  still 
clamored  for  free  bread  and  games.    To  them  Augustus 

*  "Christ"  is  the  Greek  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  word  "Messiah," 
the  "anointed"  (king)  whom  the  Jews  expected  to  appear  as  their  de- 
liverer. 

t  That  is,  B.C.,  "before  Christ,"  and  A.D.,  anno  Domini,  "the  year  of 
the  Lord." 


370    World-Empire  under  the  Principatc 

had  to  yield  in  part,  and  his  doles  to  them  and  the  shows 
he  exhibited  before  them  surpassed  even  those  of  his 
predecessors.  Over  against  the  fine  spirit  and  high  ideals 
of  a  Vergil  must  be  placed  the  example  and  popularity  of 
other  poets  of  the  time,  among  whom  the  most  promi- 
Ovid  its  nent  was  Publius  Ovidius  Naso,  better  known  as  Ovid 
Exemplar.  ^  B  a_A  D-  jg).  jje  was  not  untouched  by  the  nobler 
memories  and  hopes  of  his  time,  as  his  Fasti  show — a 
gathering  up  of  the  ancient  Roman  religious  customs 
arranged  according  to  the  religious  calendar.  But  his 
Metamorphoses,  a  collection  of  myths  of  transformation, 
his  Art  o)  Love,  his  Love  Stories  and  other  poetical  trifles, 
reveal  the  gay  and  profligate  character  of  the  society  of 
which  he  was  the  pride  and  ornament.  Possessed  of  a 
vivid,  brilliant  and  graceful  poetic  gift,  a  born  story-teller, 
he  used  his  powers  for  frivolous  and  unworthy  ends. 
Banished  to  Pontus  by  Augustus  because  of  his  intrigues, 
he  exhibits  in  his  Tristia  the  baseness  of  his  spirit  by  his 
fawning  praise  of  the  Princeps  who  had  justly  condemned 
him. 

Adminis-         436.  Augustus's  scheme  of  government  did  not  work 
equities011"  altogether  as  was  expected.    The  balance  of  power  be- 
tween the  senate  and  himself  steadily  swung  toward  his 
Growth  of     side.    The  senate  showed  incompetence  in  the  sphere 
Princeps      °^  administration  assigned  to  it,  and  he  was  compelled  to 
take  more  and  more  of  its  proper  activities  upon  himself. 
In  Rome,  for  example,  he  took  charge  of  the  supply  of  corn 
and  its  distribution  to  the  poor  and  also  of  the  water 
supply.    The  police  and  firemen  were  also  under  pre- 
fects appointed  by  him.     In  Italy  and  the  senatorial  prov- 
inces he  had  large  powers.    All  the  military  forces  through- 
out the  Empire  were  under  his  orders.    Sometimes  he  was 


Shadows  of  Augustus's  Rule          371 

compelled  to  undertake  the  financial  reorganization  of  a 
province  which  had  gone  bankrupt  under  senatorial  ad- 
ministration. Over  all  senatorial  officials  he  had  the 
majus  imperium  (§  420).  Thus  it  gradually  became 
clear  how  difficult  it  was  to  conduct  affairs  on  this  division 
of  powers.  No  wonder  that  those  who  had  hailed  him 
as  the  restorer  of  the  republic  began  to  question  whether 
he  had  not  become  its  master.  The  nobles  murmured. 
At  least  three  conspiracies  were  formed  against  him;  conspira- 
though  they  failed,  the  motive  which  inspired  them  was  cies- 
obvious.  That  Augustus  was  able  to  hold  his  position- 
for  so  many  years,  without  falling  a  victim  to  the  spirit 
that  had  killed  Julius,  is  a  testimony  to  his  prudence  and 
vigilance.  He  was  fortunate,  also,  in  having  two  wise 
counsellors,  Maecenas  and  Agrippa.  Maecenas  was  a  His  coun- 
diplomatist  of  uncommon  tact  and  wisdom;  at  the  same  M 
time  he  was  a  man  of  the  world,  enormously  rich,  a  patron 
of  art  and  literature.  Agrippa  was  the  man  of  action  as 
well  as  of  counsel.  He  won  the  battle  of  Actium  for  Augus- 
tus and  was  intrusted  by  the  Princeps  with  the  direction 
of  every  critical  piece  of  work  in  military  or  civil  affairs. 
Both  died  before  their  master,  and  he  was  wont  to  say 
during  the  later  and  darker  days  of  his  reign:  "This 
would  not  have  happened,  had  Maecenas  or  Agrippa  been 
alive." 

437.  For  darker  days  did  come  as  the  long  years  of 
Augustus  drew  to  their  close.    A  severe  blow  was  struck  at 
his  military  prestige,  when  Varus,  the  incompetent  com-  The  Disas- 
mander  of  the  legions  on  the  northern  frontier,  was  slain  ^fg 
and  his  army  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Germans  under  Ar- 
minius    (A.D.  9).     Augustus    decided    that    it   was   im- 
possible to  keep  the  frontier  at  the  Elbe  and  withdrew 


372    World-Empire  under  the  Principals 


Problem 
of  the 
Succession. 


The  De- 
vice of 
Augustus. 


his  forces  to  the  Rhine.  He  enjoined  this  policy  of 
cautious  defence  of  the  borders  upon  his  successors.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  in  this  he  showed  his  accustomed 
wisdom. 

438.  The  weakest  point  in  the  arrangement  between 
Augustus  and  the  senate  concerned  the  imperial  succes- 
sion. If  he  had  received  his  appointment  as  princeps 
from  the  senate  and  people,  then  they  could  appoint  as 
his  successor  whomsoever  they  might  choose.  As  his  was 
an  extraordinary  office,  they  might  decide  not  to  continue 
it  after  his  death.  But,  in  fact,  Augustus  was  determined 
not  only  that  the  princeps  should  remain,  but  that  the  one 
whom  he  should  point  out  should  succeed  him.  But  how 
should  this  successor  be  indicated?  Augustus  decided 
to  associate  with  himself  this  destined  successor  during 
his  lifetime  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  his  purpose  clear. 
Whom,  then,  should  he  thus  designate?  He  himself  had 
His  Family,  married  twice;  his  first  wife  bore  him  a  daughter,  Julia, 
whom  he  married  to  his  friend  and  counsellor,  Agrippa. 
Two  promising  sons  of  this  marriage  died  before  their 
grandfather.  The  third  son  was  an  impossible  candidate. 
Augustus's  second  wife,  Livia,  had  been  divorced  from 
her  former  husband  after  she  had  borne  him  two  sons, 
Tiberius  and  Drusus.  Drusus  died  before  Augustus. 
Agrippa,  his  son-in-law,  was  at  one  time  thought  of  as  the 
chosen  successor,  but  he,  too,  passed  away  in  the  lifetime 
of  Augustus.  Tiberius  alone  remained.  Though  Augus- 
tus disliked  him,  he  was  a  capable,  vigorous  man  and  the 
choice  was  narrowed  to  him.  In  A.D.  4  Augustus  adopted 
him  as  his  son;  in  A.D.  13  he  associated  him  with  himself 
in  the  imperium  and  bestowed  on  him  at  a  later  date 
the  tribunician  and  censorial  powers.  Thus  there  could 


Choice  of 
Tiberius. 


What  Augustus  Accomplished         373 

•be  no  doubt  whom  the  Princeps  desired  to  follow  him. 
Having  gone  thus  far,  he  could  not  venture  farther.    The  Death  of 
next  year  he  himself  died  at  the  age  of  seventy-five  years.     Au£ustus- 

We  are  told  that  in  the  hour  of  death  he  called  for  a  looking-glass 
and  bade  them  arrange  his  hair  and  his  beard.  He  asked  his  friends 
whether  he  had  played  well  the  "farce"  of  life.  Then,  alone  with 
his  own  family,  he  asked  after  the  health  of  a  little  child  of  the  family 
who  was  ill,  then  suddenly  kissed  his  wife  Livia  and  expired  quietly, 
breathing  out  the  last  words,  "Livia,  live  mindful  of  our  union, 
farewell." 

439.  The  nearly  half  a  century  during  which  Augus-  The 
tus  had  conducted  the  plan  of  administration  devised  by  ^"oT 
himself,  had  established  it  as  an  abiding  work.     Herein  Augustus, 
is  his  glory,  that  he  founded  a  new  and  permanent  govern- 
ment for  the  shattered  Roman  state.    He  had  done  what 
Julius  had  failed  to  do.     Order,  peace,  prosperity,  per- 
manence— these  things  he  restored  to  the  Roman  world. 
Defective  and  illogical  as  his  scheme  may  have  been  in 
some  points,  it  was  thoroughly  timely  and  practical.     It 
saved  Rome  from  going  to  pieces;  it  formed  a  working 
basis  for  unity  and  progress;  it  preserved  Roman  civiliza- 
tion for  centuries  and  gave  it  the  opportunity  to  expand  to 
the  ends  of  the  earth.     For  these  blessings,  the  results 
of  which  we  enjoy,  we  are  indebted  to  Augustus  Caesar. 

OUTLINE    FOR   REVIEW 
III.   THE    EMPIRE    OF   ROME 

I.  The  Making  of  Rome.  2.  Rome's  Western  Empire.  3.  Rome's 
Eastern  Empire. 

4.  ROME'S  WORLD-EMPIRE,  44  B.C.-A.D.  800  Preliminary  Survey  (the 
imperial  problem,  the  Principate,  the  Despotism,  barbarian  inva- 
sions, Charlemagne,  grand  divisions):  (i)  the  world-empire  under 
the  principate — the  new  leaders — the  Triumvirate — Philippi  and 


374    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

Actium — Octavius  in  control — his  plan — its  effects  (imperial 
organization,  foreign  policy,  reform  in  social  life,  religion,  litera- 
ture, art,  Caesar- worship) — birth  of  Jesus — weaknesses  in  the 
new  organization  (moral  corruption,  administrative  difficulties) 
— military  losses — the  succession  and  its  problems — death  and 
achievement  of  Augustus. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  are  the  following  famous: 
Agrippa,  Antony,  Livy,  Varus,  Maecenas,  Vergil,  Livia? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  Princeps,  Fiscus,  Augustales,  Ludi  Secu- 
lares,  Praetorian  Cohort,  Pontifex  Maximus?    3.  What  is  the 
date  of  the  battle  of  Actium,  of  the  death  of  Augustus,  of  the 
birth  of  Jesus? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  What  ideas  of  the  divinity  of  man 
had  appeared  in  the  eastern  world  which  resembled  Caesar- 
worship?  2.  Compare  the  differing  conditions  in  which  Vergil 
and  Homer  (§§  104-112)  lived  as  illustrating  the  differences 
in  their  poetry.  3.  Compare  the  political  position  and  ideas 
of  Augustus  with  those  of  Alexander  (§§  240,  245,  255,  263, 
265,  266,  271). 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  The 
Period  of  the  Second  Triumvirate.  Morey,  pp.  203-212;  Shuck- 
burgh,  ch.  46.  2.  The  Principate.  Munro,  pp.  143-148  (sources) ; 
Abbott,  pp.  266-273;  West,  pp.  390-395;  Myres,  pp.  545-5495 
Wolfson,  pp.  403-405 ;  Seignobos,  pp.  266-268;  Merivale,  ch.  51. 

3.  The  Provinces  in  the  Scheme  of  Augustus.     Morey,  pp.  220- 
224;  Abbott,  pp.  283-285;  Merivale,  pp.  409-410;  Myres,  pp. 
553-555-    4.  The  Foreign  Policy  of  Augustus.   Myres,  pp.  544- 
553;  West,  pp.  395-398;  Abbott,  p.  282.     5.  The  Character  of 
Augustus.    Botsford,  p.  218;  Morey,  pp.  228-229;  Horton,  pp. 
316-318.    6.  Roman  Literature  of  the  Augustan  Age.    Laing, 
pp.  198-386  (biographies  and  quotations) ;  Mackail,  pp.  91-168. 

The  Sue-          440.  Tiberius  succeeded  his  stepfather  without  oppo- 
cessors  of     sition.     He  was  the  first  of  four  members  of  the  house  of 

Augustus — 

the  juiian     Caesar  to  occupy  the  position  of  Princeps.    These  were: 

Line. 

TIBERIUS  (stepson  of  Augustus),  A.D.  14-37. 
GATUS,  surnamed   Caligula   (great  grandson   of  Augustus   and 
grandnephew  of  Tiberius),  A.D.  37-41. 


Tiberius  and  Gains  375 

CLAUDIUS  (uncle  of  Gaius  and  nephew  of  Tiberius),  A.D.  41-54. 
NERO  (nephew  of  Gaius  and  stepson  of  Claudius),  A.D.  54-68. 

441.  TIBERIUS  had  force  of  character  and  genuine  abil-  Tiberius. 
ity,  but  he  came  to  his  position  when  over  fifty  years  of  age, 
and  the  weight  of  administration  hung  heavy  upon  him. 
His  originally  sensitive  temperament  had  been  rendered 
gloomy  and  suspicious  by  bitter  experience;  now  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  state,  he  lapsed  into  injustice  and  cruelty 
when  opposed  by  the  senatorial  nobility.  In  his  old  age 
he  fell  under  the  influence  of  an  unscrupulous  favorite, 
Sejanus,  the  praetorian  prefect  (§  428).  Weary  of  his  im- 
perial burden,  he  retired  for  repose  to  the  island  of  Cap- 
reae,  where  he  performed  only  the  necessary  duties  of  his 
position,  leaving  the  conduct  of  affairs  to  Sejanus.  The 
latter's  outrageous  acts  finally  brought  about  his  down- 
fall; his  patron  survived  him  but  a  few  years,  dying  at  the 
age  of  seventy-seven.  GAIUS,  as  a  youth,  was  a  universal  Gaiu«. 
favorite.  The  soldiers  on  the  frontier,  among  whom  a 
part  of  his  childhood  was  spent,  idolized  him.*  His 
elevation  to  the  principate,  at  twenty-four  years  of  age, 
was  followed  by  a  series  of  acts  which  promised  well.  But 
hardly  a  year  had  passed  when  he  entered  upon  a  course 
of  life  unparalleled  for  extravagance  and  brutality.  The 
riches  which  the  frugal  Tiberius  had  gathered  were 
dissipated  in  costly  games  and  wild  vice.  He  heaped 
contempt  on  the  institutions  and  representatives  of  the 
republic.  He  made  his  horse  consul.  He  demanded 
worship  as  a  god.  It  is  charity  to  assume  that  a  sudden 
illness  which  fell  upon  him  early  in  his  career  had  left  him 

*  They  called  him  Caligula,  "little  boots,"  because  of  the  soldier's 
boots  which  he  wore  while  among  them  as  a  child. 


376    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

a  madman.  A  conspiracy  in  his  palace  brought  him  to 
his  death,  and  Rome  drew  a  long  breath  of  relief.  Up  to 

Claudius,  the  time  of  his  becoming  princeps,  CLAUDIUS  was  known 
as  a  timid,  incapable  pedant.  Thrust  into  this  high 
position  at  the  age  of  fifty-one,  he  showed  surprisingly 
excellent  administrative  qualities.  He  still  pursued  his 
antiquarian  researches,  made  tedious  speeches  and  wrote 
tiresome  books.  But  he  had  good  advisers  and  able 
generals,  and  the  Empire  prospered  under  him.  His 
weakness  of  temper  made  him  as  he  grew  older  a  prey  to 
designing  women  and  intriguing  servants.  It  was  whis- 
pered that  he  died  by  poisoning.  All  men  hoped  the  best 

Nero.  things  from  NERO,  who  followed  him.  He  was  fond  of 
art  and  literature  and  had  imbibed  a  taste  of  wisdom  from 
his  tutor  Seneca,  the  philosopher.  The  latter,  with  Bur- 
rus,  the  praetorian  prefect,  guided  the  first  activities  of  the 
new  ruler,  who  was  a  mere  youth,  seventeen  years  old. 
His  mother,  a  capable,  imperious  woman,  had  a  strong 
influence  over  him.  But  the  quartette  fell  out  one  with 
another.  Nero  was  encouraged  to  emancipate  himself 
from  his  mother's  authority,  and  plunged  into  wild  ex- 
cesses, while  his  able  ministers  conducted  public  affairs 
successfully.  But  soon  his  frivolous,  brutal  temper,  thus 
roused,  played  havoc  on  every  side.  His  mother  was 
murdered.  Seneca  was  condemned  and  committed  sui- 
cide. Nero  gave  himself  loose  rein.  He  posed  as  a  poet 
and  public  singer.  Extravagant  revels  and  unending  shows 
wasted  the  imperial  treasures;  abominable  vices  and  un- 
speakable cruelties  disgraced  the  court.  So  low  had  he 
fallen  in  public  esteem  that  a  frightful  conflagration,  which 
destroyed  the  greater  part  of  Rome,  was  laid  at  his  door. 
Patience  was  at  last  exhausted,  the  legions  in  the  prov- 


Growing  Power  of  the  Princeps       377 

inces  rebelled,  and  Nero  fled,  to  die  at  length  by  his  own 
hand.  His  last  words  were:  "That  such  an  artist  as  I 
should  perish!" 

442.  During  these  years  the  position  of  the  Princeps  The 
changed.     The  balance  in  his  favor  over  against  the  sen-  p™nclpate 
ate  was  complete.     His  powers  were,  it  is  true,  voted  to  Tyranuv. 
him  by  the  senate  and  people,  but  he  had  made  sure  of 

the  position  before  election.  Hereditary  descent  was 
recognized  as  giving  a  claim  to  it.  The  principate,  there- 
fore, in  theory  and  form  constitutional,  was,  in  fact,  a 
tyranny.  The  possession  of  military  power  was  decisive; 
the  Princeps  was  first  of  all  Imperator — and  Emperor* 
we  shall  henceforth  call  him.  The  senate  was  little  more 
than  his  tool.  Its  fear  of  him  was  intensified  by  his  assum- 
ing the  right  to  accuse  anyone  of  treason;  an  accusation 
meant  condemnation  and  was  followed  by  immediate 
execution  at  the  hands  of  the  soldiery.  By  this  means 
many  of  the  leading  men  of  Rome  were  put  to  death.  Yet 
a  section  of  the  proud  and  independent  nobility,  though 
silenced,  was  not  subdued.  They  knew  their  rights  and 
steadily  opposed  the  tyranny.  The  emperor,  in  turn,  The 
knew  that  constitutionally  he  was  dependent  upon  the  SjJJJJJJi 
senate,  and  did  not  dare  go  so  far  as  to  destroy  it  and  rule 
alone.  As  a  result,  he  looked  for  support  to  the  weapons 
of  his  praetorian  guard.  Such  an  ally  was  dangerous;  it 
might  in  time  become  the  master. 

443.  The  growth  of  the  Princeps'  power  was  an  advan-  Political 
tage  to  the  Empire  as  a  whole.     His  imperial  administra- 
tion came  to  be  better  organized.     The  emperor's  helpers  improve- 
became  officials.     This  was  already  true  of  his  provincial  m^tra-  " 
officers;  Claudius  changed  the  servants  of  his  household  tion- 

*  Emperor  is  only  the  English  form  of  Imperator. 


378    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

also  into  an  official  class.     Every  great  noble  had  freed- 
men  to  manage  his  private  affairs,  write  his  correspond- 
ence and  keep  his  accounts.     But  the  emperor's  accounts 
Freedmen     and  correspondence  were  those  of  an  Empire,  and  the  men 
m  office.      wno  attencieci  to  tneSe  became  of  great  importance  to  the 
state.    They  were  recognized  as  state  officials  and  were 
Prosperity,    organized  for  more  efficient  service.     Under  this  improved 
public  service  the  prosperity  of  the  provinces  advanced. 
The  unifying  of  the  Empire  by  a  common  government  and 
by  the  spread  of  commerce  and  culture,  went  on  rapidly. 
The  personal  character  of  the  emperors  and  their  doings 
at  Rome,  whether  good  or  bad,  did  not  affect  the  well- 
ordered  system.     Egypt,  for  example,  was  never  so  pros- 
perous as  under  Nero.     The  same  progress  is  found  in 
The  relation  to  the  frontiers.     In  general  the  cautious  policy 

Frontier.      Q£  Augustus  was  followed  (§  429).     Military  roads  and 
fortifications  strengthened  the  Rhine  frontier.     Claudius 
Anneia-      made  a  notable  addition  to  the  Empire  by  annexing  Britain 
Britahi.        in  43  B-c-     From  that  time  the  island,  though  not  entirely 
subjugated,  began  to  come  under  the  direct  influence  of 
Roman  civilization.     The  same  ruler  enlarged  the  Empire 
in  Africa,  where  he  formed  two  new  provinces.   Dependent 
kingdoms  like  Thrace  and  Judae  were  turned  into  prov- 
inces by  him.   At  the  close  of  this  period  there  were  twenty- 
five  provinces  under  the  control  of  the  emperor. 
The  444.  The  revolt  of  the  legions,  before  which  Nero  took  his 

casa*"  own  ^e  anc^  *nus  ^^  *ne  principle  vacant,  was  followed 
by  a  brief  period  of  anarchy  (A.D.  68-69),  m  which  four 
generals,  Galba,  Otho,  Vitellius  and  Vespasian,  were  pro- 
claimed imperators  by  their  troops  and  each  was  recog- 
nized by  the  senate.  In  the  struggle  that  followed,  Ves- 
pasian came  out  victor.  He  and  his  two  sons  who  followed 


The  Flavian  Ccesars  379 

him  constitute  the  house  of  the  Flavian  Caesars.    They 
reigned  as  follows: 

VESPASIAN,  A.D.  69-79. 
TITUS,  A.  D.  79-81. 
DOMITIAN,  A.D.  81-96. 

445.  VESPASIAN  was  an  experienced  commander  and  Vespasian, 
administrator.  He  was  of  humble  origin,  the  son  of  a 
Sabine  centurion  and  money-lender.  He  brought  to  the 
principate  shrewd  common-sense  and  practical  ability, 
coupled  with  unpolished  manners  and  provincial  speech, 
which  were  a  stock  subject  of  ridicule  with  the  Roman 
nobles.  But  he  know  how  to  rule  wisely  and  well,  joining 
firmness  with  justice  and  forbearance  toward  his  enemies, 
and  restoring  the  shattered  finances  of  the  state  by  such 
careful  economies  that  he  was  thought  stingy  and  sordid. 
He  appreciated  the  dignity  of  his  office  and  was  worthy 
of  it.  When  at  the  age  of  seventy  years  the  pains  of  death 
came  upon  him,  he  struggled  to  his  feet  declaring  that  the 
emperor  should  die  standing.  The  early  life  of  his  son 
TITUS  led  men  to  expect  in  him  a  second  Nero.  They  Titus, 
were  happily  disappointed.  He,  like  his  father,  sought 
to  live  up  to  his  high  position;  he  abandoned  his  vices 
and  boon  companions.  To  his  enemies  he  was  splendidly 
gracious;  to  the  people  lavishly  generous.  He  thought 
that  day  lost  in  which  he  had  not  given  something  away. 
"  The  darling  of  humanity  "  is  the  descriptive  phrase  of  a 
later  historian.  The  terrible  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  which 
destroyed  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  (A.D.  79),  a  dis- 
astrous fire  at  Rome,  a  wasting  pestilence  which  devas- 
tated Italy,  gave  him  unequalled  opportunities  for  exer- 
cising his  benevolence,  and  he  was  not  found  wanting.  It 
has  been  questioned  whether  in  time  the  vexatious  prob- 


380    World-Empire  under  the  Prindpate 

lems  of  imperial  rule  would  not  have  changed  him  for  the 
worse.  As  it  was,  after  scarcely  two  years  of  power,  he 
died,  loved  and  mourned  by  all.  His  younger  brother, 
Domitian.  DOMITIAN,  was  a  passionate,  ambitious  character  who, 
held  back  by  his  father  and  brother  during  their  lifetime, 
was  all  the  more  eager  to  rule.  People  called  him  a  "  bald- 
headed  Nero,"  but  if,  like  that  ruler,  he  was  corrupt  and 
vicious  in  his  private  life,  as  an  administrator  he  was  able 
and  successful.  In  many  respects  he  resembled  Tiberius, 
whom  he  took  as  his  model.  His  haughty  air  and  lordly 
bearing  made  enemies  for  him  among  the  nobility,  and 
their  renewed  hostility  turned  him  into  a  suspicious  and 
cruel  tyrant.  He  perished  by  the  daggers  of  his  attend- 
ants after  a  reign  of  fifteen  years. 

Political          446.  Two  important  political  changes  date  from  the 
Progress.      piavian  emperors,     (i)  They  made  much  of  the  office  of 
censor,  by  which  they  had  large  power  over  the  senate. 
Reorgan-      Domitian  held  it  for  life.     By  virtue  of  this  censorial 
thTsenate     authority  Vespasian  enlarged  the  senatorial  order  (§  430), 
which  had  become  thinned  out  by  civil  war  and  exe- 
cutions.    He  chose  new  senators  from  the  most  honor- 
able citizens  throughout  Italy  and  the  Empire.     Thus  to 
the  old  nobility  was  added  a  new  official   aristocracy 
created  by  the  emperor  and  friendly  to  him.     (2)  Ves- 
pasian met  the  problem  of  the  succession  by  emphasiz- 
The  ing  the  hereditary  right  of  his  sons  to  follow  him.     He 

succession.  assOciated  them  with  himself  and  designated  them  as  his 
successors.  In  the  same  way  Titus  made  Domitian  a 
colleague.  The  name  Ca?sar  was  taken  as  an  imperial 
title,  as  though  these  emperors  were  descended  from 
Augustus.  The  result  of  all  these  measures  was  to  raise 
the  dignity  and  mark  the  supremacy  of  the  Princeps. 


PLATE  XIX 


Spoils  of  the  Jewish  War 


RELIEF    FROM    THE    ARCH    OF    TITUS    IN    ROME 


Foreign  Affairs  under  the  Flavians    381 

The  senate  had   less  and  less  importance;    the  people 
none. 

447.  Apart  from  the  reorganization  of  the  finances  of  imperial 
the  state  and  the  restoration  of  order  and  peace  by  these  Advance- 
emperors,  three  imperial  tasks  call  for  special  mention, 
(i)  The  province  of  Judaea  (§413)  broke  out  in  a  fierce  The 
rebellion  in  A.D.  66.     Vespasian  had  been  sent    against  J^a.0' 
the  rebels,  and  it  was  while  he  was  fighting  there  that  his 
legions   proclaimed   him   emperor.    When   he   went   to 
Rome,   he  left  the  conduct  of  the  war  to  Titus.    Among 
the  Jews  there  were  many  who  preferred  Roman  rule, 
but  a  body  of  violent  fanatics  gained  the  upper  hand, 
destroyed  the  Roman  garrison  in  Jerusalem  and  slaugh- 
tered right  and  left.     Finally  Titus  shut  up  the  rebels  in  Destruction 
Jerusalem.     For  five  awful  months  the  Romans  besieged  Jj^"01*" 
and  assaulted  the  city,  until  at  last  the  rebels  held  only  the 
Temple  hill.    The  whole  was  finally  taken  by  assault 
and  burned  to  the  ground  (A.D.  70).     (2)  The  Empire 
was  extended  in  the  west  and  north  of  Britain.     The  le-  Britain, 
gions    were   under    the    command   of  an   able  general, 
Agricola,  who  advanced  into  Scotland.      His  fleet  also 
circumnavigated  the  island.     (3)  On  the  German  frontier  Germany. 
Rome  advanced  across  the  upper  Rhine  and  a  fortified 
wall  more  than  a  hundred  miles  in  length  was  begun,  to 
connect  the  upper  waters  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube. 
Behind  this  rampart  lay  a  strip  of  land  called  the  Agri 
Decumates,  which  was  thus  added  to  the  Empire.     It  was 
in  no  sense  a  change  in  the  defensive  policy  of  Augustus, 
but  a  measure  of  protection  for  Roman  colonists  and  a 
stronger  means  of  defence  against  the  Germans. 


382    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 


OUTLINE   FOR   REVIEW 
III.    THE   EMPIRE   OF   ROME 

I.  The  Making  of  Rome.  2.  Rome's  Western  Empire.  3.  Rome's 
Eastern  Empire. 

4.  ROME'S  WORLD-EMPIRE. 

(i)  The  world-empire  under  the  principate — the  Julian  line— per- 
sonality and  history — administration  of  these  Caesars  (tyranny  and 
opposition;  organization  of  officials) — foreign  politics — anarchy — 
the  Flavian  Caesars — personality  and  history — political  advance  (the 
senate,  the  succession) — foreign  politics  (Judaea,  Britain,  Germany). 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  Name  the  emperors  of  this  century 
in  chronological  order.  2.  What  is  meant  by  Agri  Decumates, 
praetorian  prefect,  the  title  Caesar?  3.  For  what  are  the  fol- 
lowing famous:  Seneca,  Sejanus,  Jerusalem,  Pompeii,  Agricola? 
What  is  the  date  of  the  annexation  of  Britain,  of  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  ? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  the  policy  of  the  Flavian 
Caesars  regarding  the  problem  of  the  Succession  with  that  of 
Augustus.  2.  As  far  as  good  government  goes,  how  does  the 
first  century  A.D.  of  Roman  rule  compare  with  the  first  cen- 
tury B.C.?  3.  What  was  the  difference  between  the  demands 
made  upon  an  emperor  by  the  City  of  Rome  and  by  the  Prov- 
inces? Could  they  be  reconciled  ?  4.  "I  wish  that  the  Roman 
people  had  but  one  neck,  that  I  might  strike  it  off  with  one 
blow."  "I  wish  to  govern  the  state  not  as  my  property  but 
that  of  my  people."  Show  how  both  these  sayings  are  char- 
acteristic of  a  Roman  emperor. 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  The 
Problem  of  Tiberius.  Munro,  pp.  149-152  (source);  Merivale, 
pp.  430-436;  Abbott,  pp.  288-289;  Bury,  pp.  189-195,  209-213. 

2.  Life  and  Character  of  Sejanus.     Merivale,   pp.  438-442. 

3.  Internal  Politics  under  the  Julian  Caesars.     Abbott,  ch.  13. 

4.  Imperial  Politics  under  the  Julian  Caesars.     Morey,  ch.  24; 
Merivale,  pp.  430-478;  Bury,  pp.  166-187,  206-209,  238-245, 
258-270,  305-321.     5.  The  Burning  of    Rome   under   Nero. 
Laing,  pp.  424-431  (source);  Bury,  pp.  285-288.    6.  The  Flavian 
Caesars— Their  Personality  and  Achievement.     Merivale,  pp. 


Society  in  the  First  Century  A.D.     383 

501-513;  Abbott,  ch.  14;  Bury,  ch.  21.  7.  The  Jewish  War. 
Merivale,  pp.  495-500;  Bury,  pp.  366-373.  8.  The  Destruction 
of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum.  Laing,  pp.  455-460  (source). 

448.  The  century  of  imperial  Rome  closing  with  the  social 
death  of  Domitian  presents  a  brilliant  and  instructive  Progrcss- 
picture,  when  viewed  from  the  side  of  social  life.    In 
studying  it,  we  must  observe,  however,  that  our  informa-  A  warning 
tion  comes  chiefly  from  the  capital.   Rome  was  the  centre 

of  literature,  and  its  life  is  reflected  in  the  writings  which 
have  come  down  to  us.  Italy  and  the  provinces  contrib- 
uted but  little  to  the  picture,  and  what  little  comes  from 
them  reveals,  in  many  respects,  a  notable  difference  in 
the  purity  and  simplicity  of  their  life  and  manners  from 
those  that  prevailed  in  the  great  city. 

449.  In  social  classes  and  their  relations  the  old  Roman  social 
distinctions  (§  430),  emphasized  by  Augustus,  grew  more  Classes- 
rigid.    At  the  summit  stood  the  Princeps  and  the  senatorial 
order.    The  rulers  that  followed  Augustus  imitated  him 

in  the  formal  rejection  of  special  titles  and  in  not  encour- 
aging an  elaborate  court  etiquette.    Yet  little  by  little, 
with  increasing  powers,  they  assumed  greater  state.    A  The  court 
court  grew  up;  the  "friends"  of  the  emperor  paid  him 
formal  visits  every  day;  his  house  became  a  palace,*  and 
was  filled  with  servants  and  courtiers.    A  similar  stateli- 
ness  appears  in  the  households  of  the  senatorial  nobility.  Senators. 
Immensely  rich  and  standing  next  to  the  emperor,  they 
kept  up  splendid  establishments.    A  curious  feature  is 
the  system  of  clients.    The  old  Roman  client  (§  316)  be-  The 
came  a  mere  courtier  and  parasite.     Every  morning  he 
visited  his  noble  patron  to  pay  his  respects.     If  a  poet,  he 

*  Our  word  "palace"  comes  from  Palatium,  the  Palatine  Hill,  where 
f.he  emperor  dwelt. 


384    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

recited  his  verses;  if  a  wit,  he  amused  the  great  man  by 
jests;  if  a  common  man,  he  followed  in  his  train  when  the 
senator  went  out  on  the  street.  For  these  services  all  ex- 
pected rewards,  food  or  money  or  patronage  of  some  sort. 

Knights.  Beneath  the  senatorial  was  the  equestrian  order  (knights), 
whose  members  were  immersed  in  business  or  official 

Lower  duties.  They,  too,  were  men  of  great  wealth.  Next  came 
the  mass  of  ordinary  citizens,  divided  into  a  middle  class, 
doubtless  respectable  and  well-to-do,  but  of  whom  we 
know  little,  and  the  lowest  classes,  who  were  restless  and 
wretchedly  poor,  dependent  on  state  doles  for  food  and 
on  the  public  shows  for  amusement.  Then  there  were 
the  freedmen,  who  were  often  wealthy  and  influential  by 
reason  of  their  positions  as  confidential  servants  in  the 
great  houses,  or  because  of  their  business  activities.  The 
various  foreigners  from  the  provinces  formed  another 
body,  a  crowd  of  Egyptians,  Syrians,  Jews  and  others, 
who  had  sought  the  capital  for  the  opportunities  afforded 
by  it  of  making  an  easy  living.  Beneath  all  was  the  enor- 
mous body  of  slaves  who  performed  all  sorts  of  tasks  in 
the  household,  the  manufactories  and  the  mines,  on  the 
streets  and  the  farms.  A  Roman  house  could  not  be 
managed  without  slaves.  In  the  great  mansions  they 

»  performed  all  sorts  of  services  for  the  members  of  the 

household.  Their  duties  were  carefully  specialized;  be- 
sides a  slave  to  keep  the  door,  or  a  slave  to  call  the  name  of 
the  guest,  the  noble  had  a  special  slave  to  put  on  his  san- 
dals and  a  special  slave  to  fold  his  clothes. 

occupa-  450.  In  considering  the  occupations  of  the  period  we 
observe  that  some  activities  which  hitherto  were  thought 
unworthy  have  risen  into  favor.  Such  were  teaching  and 
medicine.  Citizens  became  wealthy  and  distinguished 


Roman  House  of  this  Age  385 

as  physicians.  An  income  of  $10,000  a  year  was  obtained 
by  one  famous  specialist.  Other  Romans  trained  them- 
selves as  teachers  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy  and  gained 
large  fees.  We  hear  of  successful  booksellers.  The  law  be- 
came a  most  important  profession.  The  immense  extension 
of  Roman  business  and  political  interests  gave  a  rich  field 
for  the  lawyer.  To  win  his  case  he  must  be  a  good  speaker, 
and  Roman  legal  oratory  was  famous  the  world  over. 

The  increase  of  Roman  wealth  and  the  expansion  of  the  Art  of 
Roman  horizon  resulted  in  the  improvement  of  the  Art  LlvInK> 
of  Living.    This  is  seen  in  studying  (a)  the  house,  (&)  food 
and  dress,  (c)  the  amusements  of  Rome. 

451.  The  simple  one-room  house  of  old  Rome  (§  348)  The  House 
had  grown  into  an  extensive  and  magnificent  mansion. 
The  improvements  of  the  later  day  (§  385)  were  carried 
further.  The  height  of  splendor  was  reached  in  the  fa- 
mous palace  of  Nero,  the  "Golden  House,"  "the  most 
stupendous  dwelling-place  ever  built  for  mortal  man." 
Country-houses  were  of  great  size  and  marvellously 
adorned.  Ivory,  marble,  gems  and  gold  were  lavishly 
employed  for  decoration.  Even  a  provincial  town  like 
Pompeii  could  boast  elegant  private  mansions.  There 
the  house  of  Pansa  occupied  an  entire  square.  It  had 
more  than  sixty  rooms  on  the  ground  floor,  of  which  half, 
being  on  the  street  and  separate  from  the  interior,  were 
rented  for  shops.  Back  of  the  peristyle  (§  385)  were  five 
great  rooms  opening  on  a  long  veranda  which  faced  a 
garden  covering  a  space  one-third  as  large  as  the  house. 
The  most  remarkable  ornamentation  in  houses  of  this 
age  was  the  mosaic  and  fresco  work.  Statues,  paintings 
and  bric-a-brac  abounded;  the  furniture  was  highly  or- 
namental and  costly. 


386    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

Dress.  452.  Little  change  is  seen  in  Roman  dress  except  in  the 

costliness  of  the  materials.  The  lacerna,  or  cloak,  was 
often  worn  in  addition  to  the  toga.  Garments  of  silk 
and  linen  began  to  appear.  Extravagant  display  of  jew- 
els, a  weakness  of  Roman  women  (§  348),  is  characteristic. 
The  popular  gem  was  the  pearl;  strings  of  pearls  of  great 
size  and  purity  were  highly  prized.  Caligula's  wife  had 
a  set  of  pearls  and  emeralds  valued  at  nearly  $2,000,000. 

Food.  The  growing  refinement  of  taste  in  food  and  the  lavish 
extravagance  at  banquets,  already  referred  to  (§  385), 
reached  a  great  height.  Rare  and  costly  dainties  were 
sought  from  the  ends  of  the  earth;  dinners  of  twenty 
courses  were  given.  Gluttony  became  an  art  and  the 
Roman  nobles  were  unrivalled  masters  in  it.  This  wan- 
ton extravagance,  however,  testifies  to  a  greater  variety 
of  food  and  a  finer  taste  among  all  classes  of  society.  Three 
courses,  consisting  of  kid  or  chicken  with  eggs  and  as- 
paragus and  fruit,  was  probably  an  ordinary  bill  of  fare 
for  a  dinner  among  well-to-do  people  and  indicated  a  vari- 
ety and  refinement  in  eating  of  which  old  Rome  knew 
nothing. 

Amuse-  453.  In  a  society  of  luxurious  wealth  and  idle  poverty 

amusements  are  a  necessity,  and  the  Romans  never  plunged 

Holidays,  so  deeply  into  them  as  at  this  time.  The  number  of  holi- 
days grew;  there  were  eighty- seven  in  a  year  under 
Tiberius.  Two  favorite  holiday  seasons  were  the  Satur- 
nalia, beginning  December  17,  and  New  Year's  Day.  The 
former  was  a  season  of  riotous  fun,  when  the  ordinary  con- 
ditions of  life  were  reversed.  Slaves  could  do  as  they  liked; 
crowds  thronged  the  streets,  laughing  and  feasting.  New 
Year's  Day  was  an  official  and  religious  holiday.  Visits 
were  exchanged  among  friends.  The  emperor  received 


The  City  of 

ROME 

under  the  Empire. 

SIX.     1000  2000  3000  4 

Scale  of  Feet. 

P.V.^i      Baths 

SFora  and  Porticoes 
Circuses,   I  li.-:ii  rr-  etc. 
•••      Temple* 
HMM     Imperial  Palaces 
Aqueducts 


Baths  of  Diocletian. 
Baths  of  Constantino. 
Baths  of  T.tus. 
Baths  of  Caracalla. 
Baths  of  Agrippa. 
liidh>  ,,f  NeVo 
Colisseum. 
Circus  Maximum. 
Circus  Flaminius. 
Theatre  of  Marcellus. 
Theatre  of  Balbus. 
Stadium  of  Domitiaii. 
Odeum  of  Domitian. 


House  of  Gaius. 
House  of  Tiberius. 
House  of  Augustus. 
House  of  Domitian. 

20.  Pomi>ey's  Poitico 

21.  Forum  of  Trajan. 

22.  Forum  of  Augustus. 
Forum,  of  Vespasian. 

he  Forum. 

ortico  of  Phllippi. 
26.  Portico  of  Octavian. 
2T.  House  of  Vectilian. 

28.  Temple  of  Venus  anJ  ; 

29.  Temple  of  Jupiter 

30.  Emporium. 

31.  Mausoleum 


. 

23.  Foru 

24.  The 

25.  Port 


31.  Mausoleum  of 

32.  Citadel 


Gladiatorial  Shows  and  the  Circus     387 

the  people  in  state.  At  both  seasons  gifts  were  made.  All 
classes  of  the  people  were  accustomed  to  give  something 
to  the  emperor,  and  in  return  he  made  a  splendid  festival 
or  reared  statues  and  temples.  But  the  chief  centres  of 
amusement  remained,  now  as  before,  the  Amphitheatre, 
the  Circus  and  the  Theatre.  The  splendor  of  the  shows 
and  the  races  almost  surpasses  description,  while  the  build- 
ings in  which  they  were  held  were  of  extraordinary  num- 
ber and  size.  Of  amphitheatres  the  greatest  was  the  TheAmphi- 
Colisseum  at  Rome,  built  by  the  Flavian  emperors.  It  theatre- 
covered  nearly  six  acres  and  accommodated  80,000  spec- 
tators. Here  were  held  the  gladiatorial  contests  (§  386), 
which  had  now  become  a  favorite  spectacle.  More  elab- 
orate methods  of  fighting  were  introduced.  The  whole 
system  occupied  a  recognized  place  in  Roman  life.  All 
sorts  of  contests  were  held.  Wild  beasts  were  imported  to 
fight  with  each  other  or  with  men.  The  arena  was  flooded 
and  naval  battles  were  fought.  The  shows  were  adver- 
tised, and  the  entire  population  of  Rome,  from  emperor 
to  slave,  attended  and  enjoyed  the  scenes  of  blood.  In 
the  Circus  the  races  were  almost  equally  popular.  Here  The  circus, 
organization  increased  the  interest;  rival  establishments 
were  distinguished  by  their  colors,  the  red,  the  white,  the 
green,  the  blue.  The  populace,  and  even  the  emperors, 
took  sides  and  great  sums  were  wagered.  Successful 
charioteers,  although  slaves  or  freedmen,  and  without 
social  rank,  became  popular  idols  and  gained  immense 
wealth.  An  inscription  in  honor  of  one,  Crescens,  who 
died  at  twenty-two,  tells  us  that  he  won  forty-seven  races 
and  received  $78,000.  The  Circus  Maximus  was  en- 
larged to  accommodate  the  crowds  that  flocked  to  these 
races  until  it  held  400,000  persons.  The  theatrical  exhi- 


388    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

The  bitions  were  of  a  low  order;  pantomime  was  the  favorite 

Theatre.  form  of  acting,  and  the  crowds  that  attended  were  amused 
by  vulgar  jests  and  debasing  scenes.  Another  form  of 
The  Bath,  amusement  must  be  mentioned — the  Bath.  Public  bath- 
ing-houses, established  at  an  earlier  day  (§  385),  became 
numerous  and  splendid.  People  bathed  for  pleasure 
several  times  a  day.  Bathers,  for  a  fee  of  less  than  one 
penny,  had  entrance  to  what  was  practically  a  luxurious 
club-house.  In  connection  with  the  bath  proper  were 
bowling-alleys  and  a  gymnasium.  Colonnades  and  rest- 
ing and  lounging  rooms  adorned  with  pictures,  a  res- 
taurant, shops  and  a  library  completed  the  outfit  of  a 
first-class  bathing  establishment  at  Rome.  Even  a 
daily  paper,  published  by  the  government,  containing 
news  of  the  city  and  official  announcements,  was  at  the 
service  of  curious  and  idle  readers. 

Amuse-  454.  The  Romans  carried  with  them  these  forms  of 

OuSde  pleasure  all  over  the  world.  In  Africa,  on  the  Danube 
Rome.  and  m  tne  borders  of  the  Eastern  desert  the  ruins  of  am- 
phitheatres and  baths  may  be  seen  to-day  in  the  cities 
where  the  Romans  ruled.  In  Pompeii,  which  was  a 
small  Italian  town,  there  were  three  bathing  establish- 
ments, two  theatres,  seating  respectively  1,500  and  5,000 
people,  and  an  amphitheatre  with  a  capacity  of  20,000 
persons.  When  we  remember  that  these  admirably  built 
and  decorated  structures  were  for  the  use  and  enjoyment 
of  the  people  at  large,  we  may  realize  the  place  and  in- 
fluence of  these  amusements  in  the  life  of  the  Roman 
world. 

A**-  455-  Turning  to  the  higher  life  of  the  century  we  ob- 

serve first  the  art  and  literature.     At  no  previous  period 
in  human  history  were  these  so  widely  diffused.     Cities 


Sculpture  and  Architecture  389 

had  their  libraries  and  their  fine  public  buildings  adorned 
with  statues  of  the  emperors  and  other  distinguished  men 
of  the  past  and  present.  The  private  houses,  if  we  may 
judge  from  those  of  Pompeii,  were  beautified  with  mo- 
saics and  wall-paintings;  artistic  objects,  large  and  small, 
abounded.  Rich  men  were  patrons  of  artists  and  writ- 
ers, and  could  criticise  their  productions  with  taste  and 
judgment.  A  marvellous  number  of  good  works  of  art 
have  come  down  to  us  from  these  times.  Yet  nowhere 
is  there  evidence  of  originality  or  genius.  The  artists  are 
imitators  or  copyists  of  the  past.  Yet  the  Roman  por-  Portrait 
trait  statues  are  notable  artistic  successes.  It  was  char-  statues- 
acteristic  of  the  Roman  to  wish  to  preserve  portraits  of 
his  ancestors  (§  351)  and  the  noble  art  of  sculpture  gave 
him  the  opportunity  to  make  these  portraits  enduring  in 
marble  and  bronze.  While  seeking  to  portray  his  sub- 
jects to  the  life,  the  artist  seems  sometimes  to  have  per- 
mitted himself  to  idealize  them;  a  portion  of  the  Greek 
grace  and  charm  has  been  joined  with  the  Roman  vigor 
and  literalness.  The  long  series  of  the  statues  or  busts 
of  the  emperors  is  the  supreme  illustration  of  this  art.  In  Archi- 
the  achievements  of  architecture  and  engineering  the  Ro-  tecture- 
man  shows  his  power.  The  massive  buildings,  the  enduring 
roads,  the  extensive  and  graceful  aqueducts,  the  ruins  of 
which  remain  in  all  the  lands  that  acknowledged  the  im- 
perial sway,  these  are  the  witnesses  of  that  practical  genius 
so  truly  characteristic  of  the  Roman.  That  genius  reached 
its  height  under  the  Empire  in  such  buildings  as  the  Coli- 
seum, the  palaces  of  the  Caesars  and  the  aqueducts  of 
Rome. 

456.  The  literature  of  the  time,  like  the  art,  was  widely  Literature, 
distributed  and  highly  finished,  but  it  was  not  genuine 


390    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

Under  the  and  powerful.  Following  the  Augustan  writers  (§  431) 
Cffilars.  came  a  variety  of  authors  of  whom  only  a  few  strike  high. 

It  is  remarkable,  also,  that  they  hail  mostly  from  the 
Seneca.  provinces.  To  the  period  of  the  Julian  Caesars  belongs 

Seneca,  the  minister  of  Nero,  as  its  chief  literary  star, 


THE  won  ID 

According  to 
Ptolemy  ISO  A.B. 


(A.D.  4-65).    He  wrote  essays  and  letters  on  morals  in 
the  spirit  of  the  Stoic  philosophy  and  in  an  ornate  rhetori- 
cal style  which  is  always  clear  and  strong  and  sometimes 
eloquent.    His  tragedies,  while  attaining  some  fame,  are 
less  significant  works.     Another  courtier  of  Nero,  who 
Petronius.     was  also  a  writer,  was  Petronius,  who  has  the  distinction 
in  literary  history  of  having  written  the  first  novel.     The 
fragments  of  it  which  have  been  preserved  are  witty  and 
realistic.     One  of  its  characters,  Trimalchio,  a  rich  fool, 
has  been  the  original  of  many  similar  personages  in  fiction, 
under  the     A  richer  literary  life  opens  under  the  Flavian  Caesars — 
csJar".        a  period  which,  in  comparison  with  that  of  Augustus,  has 
statius.        been  called  the  Silver  Age.     Its  chief  poet  was  Statius 
(about  A.D.  45-96),  whose  epic  poem,  the  Thebais,  cen- 


Literature  in  the  Silver  Age          391 

tring  about  the  mythical  wars  of  Thebes,  falls  just  short 
of  greatness.  Martial  (43-101  A.D.)  wrote  Epigrams,  Martial, 
short  stanzas,  witty,  stinging  or  complimentary,  as  de- 
sired by  the  patrons  to  whom  he  paid  court.  They  pre- 
sent a  vivid  picture  of  Roman  life  in  his  day.  Pliny,  the  Pliny 
elder  of  the  name,  was  the  great  scholar  of  the  time  (23-  ^er 
79  A.D.).  He  was  an  imperial  official  who,  in  the  course 
of  his  duties,  gathered  a  mass  of  information  which  he 
condensed  into  the  most  important  of  his  works  that  has 
been  preserved,  the  Natural  History.  He  was  a  diligent 
student  and  careful  observer.  While  his  conclusions  are 
valuable  only  as  illustrating  the  ideas  of  his  time,  the 
facts  he  gathered  are  of  the  greatest  interest  to  all  later 
students  of  the  geography  and  history  of  the  Empire. 
Another  learned  prose  writer  was  Quintilian,  a  distin-  Quintuian. 
guished  teacher  of  rhetoric.  He  gathered  the  results  of 
his  observation  and  study  in  a  notable  work  on  the  Art 
and  Science  oj  Rhetoric,  which  formed  for  centuries  the 
standard  treatise  on  the  subject.  Two  subjects  treated 
in  it  still  have  living  interest,  a  criticism  of  the  great  Ro- 
man writers  of  the  past  and  a  theory  of  how  children  should 
be  educated.  Such  a  work  covered  in  reality  the  whole 
subject  of  education,  since  the  method  and  subjects  of 
that  discipline  were  based  upon  what  the  ancients  called 
rhetoric.  To  become  a  good  speaker  and  writer,  to  argue 
your  cause  skilfully,  or  to  express  your  thoughts  with 
elegance  and  force — this  was  the  end  of  education. 

457.  When  looked  at  from  the  point  of  view  of  its  moral  Morals, 
and  religious  life,  this  century  shows  strange  contradic- 
tions.    It  seems  impossible  to  believe  that  a  world  which  contra- 

dictions. 

ran  after  amusements  such  as  the  brutal  gladiatorial  shows, 
or  was  wedded  to  such  luxury  and  extravagance  as  we  have 


392     World-Empire  under  the  Prindpate 

The  Dark     described,  could  be  moved  by  serious  things.     Other  sides 
Slde-  of  life  disclose  like  dark  pictures.     The  mad  thirst  for 

money  led  to  all  sorts  of  wickedness.  The  legacy-hunter 
who  paid  court  to  rich  old  bachelors  in  order  to  be  re- 
membered in  their  wills  was  a  recognized  character  in 
society.  Others  did  not  hesitate  to  forge  wills  or  to 
remove  by  poisoning  those  who  stood  in  the  way  of  their 
inheritance.  Marriage  was  now  a  mere  civil  contract  and 
the  wife  retained  control  of  her  property.  Common  and 
easy  as  divorce  had  become,  marriage  was,  nevertheless,  re- 
garded as  undesirable  A  man  who  married,  some  thought, 
was  out  of  his  sober  senses.  He  would  be  much  more 
sought  after  in  society  if  he  remained  single. 

The  458.  To  offset  this  dark  side,  we  need  to  remember 

Bnghter       ^^  ^^  scenes  are  foun(j  at  Rome  only  and  that  they 

are  characteristic  of  a  society  in  which  both  the  rich  at 
the  top  and  the  poor  at  the  bottom  are  idle — a  perfectly 
unnatural  state  of  things.  In  the  provinces  a  healthy 
and  sober  life  was  the  rule,  and  from  them  a  stream  of  new 
strength  was  poured  into  the  capital.  Moreover,  the  worst 
phases  of  Roman  life  appeared  under  the  Julian  Caesars. 
In  the  time  of  the  Flavians  a  much  higher  tone  of  morals 
is  to  be  observed.  In  the  first  half  of  the  century  the 
Romans  had  gone  crazy  from  excess  of  power  and  riches; 
in  the  latter  half  they  came  back  to  reason. 

Moral  459-  The  popularity  of  philosophy  in  Rome  throws  a 

7'  brighter  gleam  over  these  times.  The  moral  system  of 
the  Stoics  was  the  favorite.  When  we  recall  the  princi- 
ples of  that  school  (§  293),  we  cannot  fail  to  see  how  they 
would  fall  in  with  the  practical  bent  of  the  Roman  mind. 
For  the  old  Roman  notion  of  doing  one's  duty  to  the 
state  and  the  gods,  the  Stoic  only  substituted  a  larger  ob- 


Philosophy  and  Religion  393 

ligation  to  the  world,  to  nature.  Virtue  came  to  be  a  fad, 
and  devotion  to  virtue  even  unto  death  an  exquisite  de- 
light. Thus  suicide  was  elevated  into  a  sacred  duty.  The 
Stoic  idea  of  the  brotherhood  of  man  had  a  softening  in- 
fluence upon  the  harsh  treatment  of  the  slave.  "Treat 
slaves,"  says  Seneca,  "as  inferiors  in  social  rank  to  whom 
you  stand  in  the  position  of  protector."  The  education 
of  the  poor  was  encouraged  by  free  schools,  such  as  Ves- 
pasian founded,  and  many  rich  men  gave  donations  for 
free  education  to  their  native  towns.  Humane  feeling 
was  roused  at  the  sight  of  suffering,  weakness  and  help- 
lessness. The  disasters  and  pestilences  that  afflicted 
parts  of  the  Empire  gave  occasion  for  social  help  and 
sympathy.  Even  kindness  to  animals  was  approved. 
Seneca  protests  against  the  cruelty  of  the  Amphitheatre. 
But  his  own  actions  illustrate  the  strange  contradictions 
of  his  day.  He  preached  virtue  and  encouraged  Nero  in 
vice.  He  commended  poverty  and  was  worth  millions. 
Many  rich  men  flung  themselves  with  equal  zeal  into  the 
pleasures  of  life  and  the  instructions  of  virtue.  They 
employed  philosophers  to  teach  them  the  way  of  right 
living  and  received  their  teachings  with  enthusiasm,  but 
did  not  practise  them.  Yet,  after  all,  the  standards  of 
morals  and  the  ideals  of  life  were  sensibly  lifted  by  the 
influence  of  philosophy. 

460.  The  first  century  of  the  Empire  could  hardly  be  Religion, 
said  to  be  deeply  religious.    The  vigorous  attempt  of 
Augustus  to  revive  the  old  Roman  faith  resulted  in  little 
more  than  giving  it  an  official  and  formal  life.      The  c«sar- 
strongest  religious  feelings  of  the  time  gathered,  no  doubt, 
about  the  worship  of  the  Caesars,  which  Augustus  had 
permitted,  though  not  encouraged  (§  433).     It  continued 


394    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

to  meet  a  popular  need  for  the  expression  of  gratitude, 
awe  and  satisfaction  felt  by  high  and  low  alike  in  view  of 
the  grandeur  and  the  beneficence  of  the  imperial  organiza- 
tion. Assemblies  were  organized  in  the  provinces  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  on  this  worship  and  holding  a 
religious  festival  in  honor  of  the  emperor.  Officials  were 
elected  to  superintend  the  affair,  and  participation  in  the 
worship  was  regarded  not  only  as  a  privilege,  but  also  as 
Eastern  a  sign  of  proper  loyalty  to  the  state.  Oriental  faiths,  pre- 
eminently that  of  Isis,  the  Egyptian  goddess,  continued 
to  be  popular  with  the  lower  classes,  who  found  cheer  and 
inspiration  for  their  wretched  lives  in  the  emotional  appeal 
of  the  noisy  and  startling  performances  of  such  cults  and 
in  the  promise  of  future  happiness  which  they  held  out. 
Rise  of  461.  Among  these  new  religions  from  the  East  one 

ity.nSt'  which  began  to  make  its  way  in  the  Roman  world  of  this 
age  requires  special  consideration.  Jesus,  whose  birth 
in  Judaea  has  already  been  mentioned  (§  434),  began  at 
the  age  of  thirty  to  preach  and  teach  in  Palestine.  He 
proclaimed  himself  the  Messiah,  or  Christ,  for  whom  the 
Jews  were  looking  as  a  deliverer.  But  he  taught  a 
spiritual  deliverance  from  sin  as  the  highest  good  and 
would  not  lead  a  rebellion  against  Rome.  The  Jewish 
authorities  denounced  him  before  the  Roman  governor, 
Pilate,  and  he  was  crucified  after  having  taught  a  little 
more  than  two  years  (A.D.  29).  But  he  left  behind  him  a 
band  of  disciples  who  proclaimed  that  he  had  risen  from 
the  dead  and  thus  had  sealed  the  truth  of  his  teaching. 
They,  also,  were  bidden  by  him  to  preach  the  new  doc- 
trine of  salvation  from  sin  through  the  risen  Christ  to  all 
who  would  hear,  with  the  assurance  that  he  would  soon 
return  to  earth  to  rule  as  supreme  lord.  Among  those 


Spread  of  Christianity  395 

who  were  gained  for  the  cause  was  a  Jew  named  Paul.     He  Paul. 
carried  the  name  and  doctrine  of  the  Christ  to  non-Jews 
or  Gentiles  and  gathered  companies  of  believers  in  the 
cities  of  Asia  Minor  and  Greece.    These  believers  were 
first  called  Christians  in  Antioch.     Soon  assemblies,  or 
churches,  of  Christians  were  founded  in  the  west,  at  Rome 
and  as  far  as  Spain  and  Gaul.     To  many  of  these  churches 
Paul  wrote  letters  explaining  the  doctrines  of  Christ  as  he 
understood  them.     Soon  narratives  of  the  life  and  work 
of  Jesus  were  written  down  and  sent  about  among  the 
churches.    Thus  a  book  of  Christian  writings  was  begun,  The  New 
the  book  we  call  the  New  Testament.    The  organization  Testameat 
of  these  churches  was  very  simple  at  first.     Each  church  organiza- 
was  a  unit,  its  members  managing  its  affairs  and  choosing  tion' 
officers  to  lead — deacons  to  minister  to  the  poor,  elders  * 
to  preside  at  its  assemblies.     Admission  to  the  circle  was 
conditioned  on  confession  of  faith  in  Christ  as  Saviour  and 
submission  to  the  rite  of  baptism.    At  stated  seasons  the 
members  met  and  partook  of  bread  and  wine  in  obedience 
to  the  command  of  Jesus  at  his  Last  Supper  with  his  dis- 
ciples. 

462.  The  new  brotherhood  soon  came  under  the  notice  Opposition 
of  the  imperial  authorities.  Its  secret  meetings  and  cere- 
monies  were  suspected  of  evil  designs,  and  the  belief  of  its 
members  in  one  God  brought  them  into  opposition  to  the 
worship  of  the  emperors.  The  first  action  against  them 
was  taken  by  Nero,  who  laid  upon  them  the  charge  of 
setting  fire  to  Rome,  and  put  many  to  death.  They  were 
accused  of  evil  practices  and  systematically  punished. 
Gradually  the  refusal  of  the  Christians  to  join  in  the 

*  These  elders  appear  under  two  names,  both  Greek,  presbyter,  or 
priest,  and  episcopos,  or  bishop. 


396    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

worship  of  the  emperors  came  to  be  the  chief  ground  of 
their  punishment.  They  were  regarded  as  disloyal  to 
the  Empire  and  punished  as  traitors.  Thus  Domitian 

Persecu-      is  said  to  have  persecuted  them  cruelly  on  this  account. 

tion.  The  Empire,  therefore,  at  the  end  of  the  first  century  re- 

garded all  Christians  as  worthy  of  death.  In  spite  of  this. 
the  new  religion  spread  widely,  especially  in  Asia  Minor, 
Greece  and  Egypt.  The  city  of  Rome  possessed  a  flour- 
ishing church,  and  its  adherents  were  found  even  in  the 
imperial  court.  The  pure  morals,  the  brotherly  love, 
the  joyful  spirit  and  the  hopeful  confidence  of  the  mem- 
bers of  this  faith  commended  it  to  those  everywhere  who 
by  reason  of  poverty  or  sinfulness  or  scepticism  sought 
light,  strength  and  peace — and  many  such  there  were  in 
the  Roman  world.  All  who  joined  it  looked  forward  to 
the  speedy  return  of  Christ  to  earth;  they  cared  nothing 

HOW  Far      for  society  and  the  state;  they  would  not  join  in  heathen 

justified.  worship;  they  doubted  whether  it  was  right  to  serve  in 
the  army.  By  this  separateness  they  were  laying  up  for 
themselves  hatred  and  contempt  on  the  part  of  the  people 
and  the  Empire. 

OUTLINE   FOR  REVIEW 
III.   THE   EMPIRE   OF   ROME 

I.  The  Making  of  Rome.  2.  Rome's  Western  Empire.  3.  Rome's 
Eastern  Empire. 

4.  ROME'S  WORLD-EMPIRE  [Augustus,  the  Julian  and  Flavian  Caesars]: 
social  life  (class  distinctions,  the  court  and  the  orders) — occupa- 
tions— art  of  living  (house,  dress,  food) — amusements  (holidays, 
amphitheatre,  circus,  theatre,  bath,  their  world-wide  extension) 
— art  and  architecture — literature — moral  and  religious  life  (dark 
and  bright  sides,  philosophy,  imperial  religion) — Christianity  (its 
origin,  Jesus,  Paul,  organization,  opposed  by  the  imperial  author- 
ities, attitude  of  its  adherents). 


Emperors  of  the  Second  Century      397 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  For  what  are  the  following  signifi- 
cant: Seneca,  Paul,  Crescens,  Pliny  the  Elder,  Isis,  Martial? 

2.  What  is   meant   by  messiah,   imperial  client,   Saturnalia, 
Gentiles,  legacy-hunter,  Stoicism,  New  Testament? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  the  Stoicism  of  Rome 
with  the  Stoicism  of  Greece  (§  293).  2.  Why  was  the  craze 
for  amusements  in  Rome  so  much  greater  than  in  Athens? 

3.  "As  many  slaves,  so  many  enemies."     How  does  this  say- 
ing reveal  Roman  character  ? 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  Social 
Life  at  Rome  in  the  First  Century.  Morey,  ch.  25;  Wolfson, 
ch.  34;  Botsford,  ch.  15;  Bury,  ch.  31.  2.  Roman  Amuse- 
ments. Munro,  pp.  207-216  (sources);  Bury,  pp.  607-626; 
Thomas,  ch.  4;  Wilkins,  ch.  3;  Johnston,  ch.  9.  3.  Educa- 
tion of  the  Time.  Munro,  pp.  193-197  (sources);  Bury,  pp. 
598-600.  4.  Literature  of  the  Silver  Age.  Botsford,  pp.  239- 
242;  Bury,  pp.  457-475;  Mackail,  pp.  171-204.  5.  The  Rise 
of  Christianity.  Seignobos,  pp.  362-366;  Wolfson,  pp.  447- 
451;  West,  pp.  423-428;  Botsford,  pp.  262-264,  281-282; 
Gbbion,  pp.  109-111. 


463.  Domitian  was  followed  by  a  series  of  rulers  equal  The 
in  character  and  achievement  to  Tiberius  and  Vespasian. 
In  the  century  of  their  leadership  the  Empire  reached  its 
climax.    Their  names  are  as  follows: 

NERVA,  A.D.  96-98. 

TRAJAN  (adopted  son  of  Nerva),  A.D.  98-117. 

HADRIAN  (relative  and  adopted  son  of  Trajan),  A.D.  117-138. 

ANTONINUS  (adopted  son  of  Hadrian),  A.D.  138-161. 

MARCUS  AURELIUS  (adopted  son  of  Antoninus),  A.D.  161-180. 

COMMODUS  (son  of  Aurelius),  A.D.  180-192. 


464.  On  the  death  of  Domitian  the  senate  chose  as 
Princeps,  NERVA,  a  senator  of  more  than  sixty  years.  An 
aged,  kindly  ruler,  his  chief  service  to  the  state  during  his 


Nerva. 


398    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

rrajan.  short  reign  was  the  selection  of  TRAJAN  as  his  successor. 
Trajan  was  a  Spaniard  by  birth  and  an  able  general.  As 
Princeps,  he  showed  himself  equally  vigorous  in  the 
management  of  the  Empire.  He  was  a  tall,  strong,  hand- 
some man,  of  genial  manners,  not  highly  cultured,  but  with 
a  broad  and  active  mind.  He  selected  his  officials  wisely 
and  won  their  respect,  yet  kept  careful  watch  upon  their 
doings  and  required  minute  reports  from  them.  During 
long  periods  he  was  occupied  on  the  various  frontiers  with 
military  campaigns.  In  them  he  gained  brilliant  victories 
and  enlarged  the  Empire.  In  this  respect  he  struck  out 
a  new  path.  He  died  in  Asia  Minor  while  returning 

Hadrian.  from  a  victorious  war  in  the  east.  HADRIAN,  his  successor, 
is  a  most  interesting  character.  A  tried  soldier,  he  proved 
himself  also  a  practical  administrator.  But  his  most 
striking  trait  was  his  wide  interest  in  all  the  affairs  of 
politics  and  life.  He  was  well  educated  and  dabbled  in 
literature,  art  and  philosophy.  He  travelled  into  every 
nook  and  corner  of  his  wide  domains.  He  was  not  at- 
tracted by  military  glory.  A  peaceful  reign,  with  the 
opportunity  it  gave  him  for  consolidating  and  improving 
the  state  and  for  following  out  the  bent  of  his  eager  in- 
quiring spirit,  was  his  ambition.  He  was  the  first  emperor 
to  wear  a  beard,  and  his  love  of  letters  gave  him  the  nick- 
name of  "Greekling."  He  had  no  capacity  for  personal 
friendship;  men  respected,  but  did  not  love  him.  The 
Roman  world  was  his  pride  and  joy;  he  left  it  happier  and 
stronger  than  it  had  ever  been  before.  In  the  hour  of 
death  he  composed  the  famous  poetic  address  to  his 
soul,  two  lines  of  which  are  characteristic  of  the  man: 

Whither  wilt  thou  hie  away, 
Never  to  play  again,  never  to  play. 


The  Antonines  899 

465.  A  senator  of  Gallic  descent,  ANTONINUS,  became  Antoninus 
his  successor  at  the  age  of  fifty-two.  From  his  name,  he  Pius* 
and  his  two  successors  are  called  the  Antonines.  He  was 
a  quiet,  frugal  ruler,  without  striking  qualities,  yet  sus- 
taining with  dignity  and  honor  the  duties  of  his  position. 
So  economical  was  he  in  the  finances  of  the  Empire  that  he 
was  called  the  "cheese-parer."  His  devotion  to  religion 
was  particularly  marked.  From  this  trait  he  received 
the  name  Pius,  "devout."  In  this  respect  he  prepared 
the  way  for  MARCUS  AURELIUS,  the  most  extraordinary  Marcus 
man  who  occupied  the  imperial  throne.  From  his  youth  Aurellu& 
Marcus  had  been  a  student  of  moral  philosophy  of  the  Stoic 
type  (§  293),  and  in  his  exalted  station  he  sought  only  to 
carry  out  his  high  ideals.  Much  of  the  activity  of  an  em- 
peror was  distasteful  to  him,  but  he  was  proud  that  every- 
where he  did  his  duty  as  a  philosopher  should.  He  sought 
to  carry  into  practice  the  sentiments  of  love  for  mankind 
which  he  cherished.  Severe  toward  himself,  he  disdained 
luxury  and  preferred  hardship  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he 
was  always  in  poor  health.  Though  he  loved  peace  and 
desired  to  relieve  suffering,  his  reign  was  darkened  by  a 
series  of  disastrous  wars  and  a  terrible  pestilence.  His 
family  life  was  not  pleasant,  perhaps  through  his  own 
fault.  His  son  was  unworthy  of  him.  His  sole  joys  were 
found  in  the  circle  of  his  fellow  philosophers  and  in  his 
own  lofty  meditations.  He  died  at  the  age  of  sixty,  while 
campaigning  against  barbarian  invaders  on  the  Danube. 
His  worthless  son,  COMMODUS,  followed  him  at  the  age  commodua 
of  nineteen  and  brought  the  happy  age  of  the  Antonines 
to  a  sorry  end.  Cruel  and  depraved  in  tastes,  weak  and 
vain  in  disposition,  he  preferred  games  to  government. 
His  highest  glory  was  to  win  in  the  gladiatorial  contests 


400    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

and  to  be  hailed  as  the  Roman  Hercules.  To  his  prae- 
torians only  was  he  attentive  and  they  were  the  bulwark 
of  his  rule.  He  was  strangled  by  a  wrestler  after  eleven 
years  of  folly  and  disorder. 

Political          466.  The  emperors  of  the  second  century  received  their 
Degress.      pOSjtion   through   election  by   the   senate.     Hence   they 
Emperors     were  constitutional  rulers.     So  far  as  election  went,  there- 
tionaiiyU"      f°re,  the  dyarchy  (§  423)  was  practically  restored.     These 
chosen.        emperors  ruled  also  in  harmony  with  the  senate.     It  was 
an  era  of  good  feeling  in  the  state.     Some  measures  were 
even  brought  before  the  comitia  of  the  people.     But  each 
The  emperor  took  care  to  indicate  his  successor.     The  method 

.cession.  cnosen  was  ^^  o£  adoption  an(j  association  in  govern- 
ment. The  senate  never  failed  to  elect  the  successor 
thus  indicated. 

Advance  in  467.  In  the  imperial  organization  two  notable  advances 
don*™2*"  are  seen>  (z)  The  omces  of  Caesar's  household,  formerly 
filled  by  freedmen  (§  443),  were  now  held  by  members 
of  the  equestrian  order.  Thus  Caesar's  administration 
was  dignified  and  an  honorable  public  career  in  the  civil 
service  was  opened  to  equestrians.  (2)  The  emperor 
gave  to  the  counsellors,  who  had  been  called  in  from  time 
to  time  to  advise  him,  a  more  official  and  stable  character. 
They  constituted  the  Imperial  Council,  made  up  of  offi- 
cials and  senators.  Both  of  these  changes  were  the  work 
of  Hadrian. 

imperial          468.  The  second  century  was  a  stirring  period  in  the 

Progress.      externai  history  of  the  Empire.     Two  epochs  of  special 

importance  are  to  be  observed,     (i)  The  reign  of  Trajan 

Enlarge-      marks  a  significant  extension  of  the  Empire  in  north  and 

east.    After  completing  the  rampart  begun  by  the  Flavian 

Emperors  protecting  the  Agri  Decumates  (§  447),  Trajan 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD 

with  the  boundaries  of 

THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE  Reference  to  Color*, 

at   its   greatest  extent.  |  |  over 9,009  feet 

0  100  200  .TOO  400  500 


8.000  In  9.000  feet 
600  to  3,000  feet 
Sea  Level  to  600  feet 


L«iii.-ltuile        Ka~l      from       Gi 


Dacian  and  Eastern  Wars  401 

proceeded  to  deal  with  a  formidable  danger  that  had  arisen 
on  the  Danube.  Here  just  across  the  river  the  Dacians  had  conquest 
established  a  kingdom  under  an  able  ruler,  Decebalus.  ofDacia- 
He  had  already  been  able  to  make  terms  with  Domitian, 
and  his  strength  menaced  the  security  of  the  Roman  fron- 
tier. Trajan  determined  to  crush  him.  Two  campaigns 
were  necessary,  each  taking  two  years  (A.D.  101-102;  105- 
106).  The  struggle  was  fierce  and  desperate.  Only  on 
the  death  of  Decebalus  in  battle  did  Dacia  submit  and 
become  a  Roman  province.  The  splendid  victory  is 
commemorated  in  the  Column  of  Trajan  raised  at  Rome 
to  the  height  of  a  hundred  feet  and  decorated  with  sculpt- 
ured scenes  of  the  war.  In  the  east  the  question  of  the  The 
relation  of  Armenia  to  the  Empire  was  reopened;  Trajan 
determined  to  take  issue  with  Parthia  and  settle  it.  He 
took  the  field  in  A.D.  115,  overcame  Armenia,  advanced 
southward  into  Mesopotamia,  and  did  not  stop  till  he 
reached  the  Persian  gulf.  The  Roman  arms  were  su- 
preme in  the  seats  of  the  oldest  civilization.  Three  new 
provinces  were  created,  Armenia,  Mesopotamia  and 
Assyria;  the  Parthian  king  received  his  crown  from  the 
hand  of  the  Roman  emperor.  Already  the  province 
of  Arabia  had  been  created.  Thus  the  entire  Oriental 
world  was  under  the  authority  of  Rome.  What  would 
have  been  the  verdict  of  time  on  these  eastern  conquests 
we  cannot  know,  for  hardly  had  Hadrian  come  to  the  Hadrian's 
throne  when  he  voluntarily  withdrew  his  troops,  abandoned 
the  provinces  of  Mesopotamia  and  Assyria  and  restored 
Armenia  to  its  position  as  a  dependent  kingdom.  It 
seems  likely  that  Rome  would  not  have  been  able  to  main- 
tain them  permanently  against  Parthia,  however  important 
they  were  to  the  protection  of  the  older  Roman  provinces 


402    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

in  the  east.     (2)  The  other  epoch  was  a  much  less  brilliant 
Appearance  one.    In  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  Teutonic  peoples 
blrians        began  pressing  down  to  the  Danube  and  seeking  peaceably 
or  by  force  to  enter  the  Empire.     Chief  among  these  were 
the  Marcomanni,  and  in  the  endeavor  to  drive  them  back, 
Marcus  Aurelius  was  involved  in  a  series  of  fierce  con- 
flicts.    The  invaders  were  finally  overcome  and  driven 
its  si--        across  the  Danube.     The  importance  of  the  struggle  lies 
cance.     jn  ^  ^ct  ^ai  ^  wag  ^  pressure  from  behind  that  forced 

these  barbarians  into  the  Empire,  the  beginnings  of  those 
movements  which  in  the  coming  centuries  were  to  break 
it  in  pieces. 

organiza-        469.  The  changes  in  internal  organization  were  all  in 
the  direction  of  more  unity  under  the  imperial  adminis- 
tration.    The  emperor  and  his  officials  were  everywhere 
Adminis-      active.     Hadrian  is  the  great  example  of  this.     His  visits 
AcSy.       to  the  provinces,  which  covered  a  dozen  years,  were  not 
for  pleasure,  but  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  their  re- 
sources and  organization.    As  a  result  of  them,  a  more 
careful  and  minute  supervision  of  the  details  of  adminis- 
tration was  introduced.     Imperial  officials  were  appointed 
to  look  after  the  affairs  of  the  municipalities  which  were 
thus  taken  up  directly  into  the  structure  of  the  Empire. 
Hadrian  built  many  fine  buildings  for  these  cities  and 
brought  their   finances    into    order.    The   chief   benefit 
of  such  measures  was  that  they  consolidated  the  powers 
of  the  state  and  its  interests,  bringing  all  under  the 
guidance  of  a  central  authority,  produced  greater  effi- 
its  Good       ciency  and  stimulated  the  life  of  the  members.     On  the 
sTdes8*        whole,  such  imperial  activity  was  a  mistake,  for  it  de- 
stroyed local  independence  and  made  the  citizens  look  to 
the  central  government  for  help  in  everything.    A  wider 


Unity  of  the  Empire  403 

extension  of  the  franchise  was  natural  in  these  circum- 
stances, but  this  was  not  followed  by  greater  zeal  for  the 
state  and  a  patriotic  devotion  to  it.  Citizenship  was  rather 
looked  upon  as  a  personal  honor  and  prized  because  it 
gave  special  privileges.  It  soon  became  necessary  to  com- 
pel citizens  to  take  office,  and  a  highly  prized  reward 
granted  by  the  emperors  was  exemption  from  the  duty  of 
official  service  in  the  municipalities.  In  this  imperial 
administration  Italy  began  to  stand  on  the  same  basis  as 
the  provinces,  and  Rome  itself  was  treated  like  any  other 
municipality.  The  use  of  barbarians  in  the  legions  still 
further  relieved  the  citizens  from  military  service.  Like- 
wise the  extension  of  imperial  courts  of  justice  through- 
out the  Roman  world  and  the  supremacy  of  Roman  im- 
perial law  which  was  characteristic  of  the  time,  while  it 
was  a  bond  of  union,  served  as  another  means  of  making 
individuals  and  local  communities  dependent  on  the  cen- 
tral government.  Thus,  we  are  standing  at  a  critical  mo-  A  critica' 
ment  in  the  history  of  the  Roman  world.  On  the  one  Moment> 
hand,  the  magnificent  imperial  organization  was  never 
more  complete,  and  the  life  of  the  various  communities 
absorbed  into  it  was  never  more  peaceful,  prosperous 
and  happy.  On  the  other  hand,  beneath  the  surface 
dry  rot  was  working,  local  vigor  and  individual  patriotism 
were  decaying.  Should  the  central  power  decline,  there 
was  grave  danger  that  the  dependent  parts  would  lack  the 
strength  to  rally  to  its  aid  or  to  maintain  themselves  against 
outside  pressure. 

470.  Society  breathed  more  freely  under  the  emperors  social  Life, 
of  the  second  century,  and  as  a  result  new  life  sprang  up  Art  and 
on  all  sides.    Trajan  and  Hadrian  were  mighty  builders.  ^hlt* 
The  finest  memorial  of  the  former  is  his  Column  at  Rome, 


404    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

already  referred  to  (§  468).  Hadrian's  two  chief  build- 
ings at  Rome  were  the  temple  of  Venus  and  Roma,  the 
largest  and  most  magnificent  of  all  Roman  temples,  and 
a  massive  Mausoleum  which  he  built  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Tiber,  now  known  as  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo.  Yet, 
most  characteristic  of  the  times  was  the  stately  villa  of 
Hadrian  at  Tibur,  conceived  on  a  grand  scale  and  filled 
with  works  of  art;  a  theatre,  libraries,  temples,  porches 
and  gardens  found  place  in  it.  From  it  have  been  taken 
statues,  reliefs,  mosaics  and  silver  ornaments  sufficient  to 
stock  several  museums. 

The  471.  Literature  flourished  under  the  liberal  patronage 

Revival  °^  the  emPerors  and  in  the  free  atmosphere  of  the  times. 
A  striking  sign  of  the  unity  in  the  world  of  letters  under  the 
Empire  is  the  fact  that  as  many  works  of  lasting  fame 
were  written  in  Greek  as  in  Latin.  One  of  the  greatest 
Tacitus.  historians  of  antiquity,  Cornelius  Tacitus,  belongs  to  this 
century.  His  chief  works  are  the  Histories  and  the  An- 
nals, which  deal  with  the  Empire  under  the  Julian  and 
Flavian  Caesars.  Unfortunately,  large  parts  of  these  works 
have  been  lost,  but  what  remains  is  our  chief  source  of 
knowledge  for  the  times.  Tacitus  aspired  to  bring  back 
to  life  and  power  just  the  ideas  and  institutions  which  the 
history  of  the  Empire  had  shown  to  be  fruitless  and  hope- 
less. He  sought  to  exalt  the  senatorial  nobility  as  over 
against  the  princeps,  Rome  and  Italy  as  over  against  the 
provinces.  But  so  keen  is  his  insight  into  characters  and 
manners  at  Rome,  and  so  brilliant  his  way  of  expressing 
his  estimates  of  them,  that  his  bitter  and  one-sided  judg- 
ments have  colored  all  subsequent  views  of  the  times. 
Two  lesser  works  of  his  are  the  Agricola,  an  appreciation 
of  his  father-in-law,  the  general  of  Domitian,  and  the  Ger- 


Juvenal  and  Plutarch  405 

mania,  a  description  of  the  Germans,  in  which  their  sim- 
plicity and  purity  of  life  are  favorably  compared  with  the 
depravity  of  imperial  Rome.  Side  by  side  with  Tacitus 
stands  Juvenal,  the  satirist  of  the  Empire.  What  the 
former  condemned  as  an  historian,  the  latter  held  up  to 
scorn  and  ridicule  in  his  powerful  verse.  Hypocritical 
philosophers,  parasitical  clients,  rich  fools,  ostentatious 
luxury,  fortune-hunting  and  the  trials  of  poor  men  of  let- 
ters are  painted  in  strong  and  vivid  colors. 

472.  Of  Greek  writers  the  most  famous  is   Plutarch  Plutarch. 
(A.D.  46-120),  who  wrote  the  Parallel  Lives,  forty-six  in 
number,  setting  the  biography  of  a  Roman  hero  over 
against  that  of  a  Greek.     He  was  a  diligent  collector  of 
anecdotes  and  used  them  shrewdly  to  show  the  traits  of 

his  characters.  The  book  has  ever  been  a  storehouse  of 
information  and  at  the  same  time  a  hand-book  of  morals 
— history  teaching  by  the  examples  of  the  greatest  men 
of  the  ancient  world.  Not  so  well  known,  but  a  brighter,  Lucian. 
keener  mind  than  Plutarch,  was  Lucian  (about  A.D.  125- 
180).  His  career  was  typical  of  the  time;  he  was  a  trav- 
elling lecturer.  His  peculiar  gift  revealed  itself  in  the 
writing  of  witty  and  satirical  dialogues.  The  weaknesses 
and  inconsistencies  of  the  religion  of  his  day  are  daringly 
ridiculed  in  his  Dialogues  of  the  Gods,  while  similar  keen 
and  amusing  criticism  is  passed  on  various  types  of  people 
of  his  day  in  the  Dialogues  0}  the  Dead. 

473.  Two  men  may  be  chosen  to  represent  the  higher  Represent- 
life    of  this   century:   Pliny   the  Younger   and  Marcus  *^e  " 
Aurelius,  the  emperor.      Pliny  was  a  trusted  official  of  Times- 
Trajan  and  reveals  himself  and  his  times  in  a  series  of  Pliny the 

Younger. 

Letters  to  friends.  In  these  he  appears  as  a  cultivated 
gentleman,  such  as  might  be  met  among  us  to-day.  He 


406    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

takes  long  walks  in  the  woods  and  delights  in  the  beauty  of 
nature.  He  discusses  the  latest  books.  With  a  modesty 
that  approaches  vanity,  he  tells  of  his  gifts  to  his  native 
town  in  behalf  of  education.  He  entertains  his  guests 
by  taking  them  around  the  grounds  of  his  villa  and  in- 
viting their  admiration.  He  gives  public  readings  from 
his  works,  and  we  feel  him  tremble  as  he  gets  on  his 
legs  before  his  cultured  audience.  A  good-natured,  in- 
dulgent master  to  his  slaves,  a  devoted  husband,  an  up- 
right, earnest,  if  somewhat  commonplace,  character,  he 
exhibits  the  Roman  gentleman  produced  by  the  broad, 
serious  and  refined  culture  of  the  early  second  century. 
Marcus  474.  On  a  higher  plane  we  meet  with  the  impressive 

Emperor  and  melancholy  figure  of  the  emperor-philosopher,  Marcus 
and  PW-  Aurelius.  From  his  youth  he  was  a  Stoic  in  word  and 
deed.  His  Meditations,  which  he  wrote  down  in  Greek 
from  time  to  time  wherever  he  happened  to  be,  in  the  camp 
or  in  the  palace,  reveal  to  us  his  thoughts.  He  aspired 
to  be  a  perfect  man  and  he  thought  it  possible  to  attain 
his  ideal  by  the  old  Stoic  rule  of  following  nature  (§  293). 
His  philosophy  was  tempered  by  practical  experience,  and 
hence  he  insisted  much  on  the  duty  of  a  true  man  to  so- 
ciety. From  his  experience,  perhaps,  came  also  his  sense 
of  the  need  of  divine  help.  He  turned  his  thought  into 
life;  this  separates  him  from  the  professional  philosopher 
and  makes  him  interesting,  for  he  passed  his  life  on  the 
throne.  A  sober  and  high-minded  personality,  he  did  his 
duty  in  this  high  sphere  and  came  near  to  practising  what 
he  preached. 

Religion.  475.  Yet  this  emperor  persecuted  the  Christians!  Such 
are  the  contradictions  of  history.  The  growing  popular 
hatred  of  the  Christians  is  remarkable.  We  have  already 


The  Empire  and  the  Christians        407 

suggested  a  reason  (§  462).  As  Tertullian,  a  Christian  Persecution 
writer,  said:  "If  the  Tiber  rises,  if  the  Nile  does  not  rise,  °fa^hris" 
if  the  heavens  give  no  rain,  if  there  is  an  earthquake,  fam- 
ine, or 'pestilence,  straightway  the  cry  is,  'The  Christians 
to  the  lions!'  "  The  imperial  authorities  in  some  cases 
sought  to  stand  against  the  mob  and  protect  the  Christians 
from  unwarranted  violence.  Trajan  wrote  Pliny  not  to 
search  out  Christians  for  death,  but  only  to  deal  with  cases 
that  were  brought  before  him.  Marcus  Aurelius  was  more 
severe,  and  under  his  command  Christians  were  hunted 
down  and  put  to  death.  He  regarded  their  refusal  to  join 
in  the  religion  of  the  Empire  as  "mere  obstinacy"  and 
thought  it  a  part  of  his  duty  to  punish  those  who  professed 
what  Pliny  called  "a  degrading  and  unreasonable  super- 
stition." The  Christians,  in  their  turn,  went  willingly  in 
great  numbers  to  death,  which  they  called  "martyrdom," 
that  is,  "witnessing"  to  their  faith.  Yet  they  grew  in  Their 
numbers  and  in  unity,  impelled  both  by  persecution  from  Proeress- 
without  and  by  the  false  doctrines  that  some  within  the 
fold  were  teaching.  Among  them  appeared  literary  de- 
fenders, some  of  whom  addressed  to  the  emperors  what 
are  called  Apologies,  or  arguments  in  defence  of  Chris- 
tianity as  a  reasonable  and  worthy  religion;  others  wrote 
books  maintaining  the  true  or  "orthodox"  doctrine  against 
the  false  doctrine  or  "heresy."  Thus  out  of  the  various 
churches  all  over  the  Empire  was  slowly  forming  the 
Church,  the  one  body  of  believers  in  Christ,  standing 
over  against  the  Empire  and  the  heretics.  It  was  soon 
to  make  its  power  felt  in  both  directions. 


408    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 


OUTLINE  FOR   REVIEW 
III.     THE   EMPIRE   OF   ROME 

I.  The  Making  of  Rome.  2.  Rome's  Western  Empire.  3.  Rome's 
Eastern  Empire. 

4.  ROME'S  WORLD-EMPIRE. 

(i)  The  world-empire  under  the  Principate  [Julian  line,  Flavian 
line,  life  in  the  first  century] — Emperors  of  the  second  century, 
names,  personality  and  history — political  progress  (relation  to 
senate,  organization  of  court) — foreign  relations  (expansion  and 
contraction,  barbarian  invasions) — imperial  unification — too  much 
government  ? — new  social  life  (art,  architecture,  literature,  great 
names) — persecution  and  progress  of  Christianity. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  What  is  meant  by  mausoleum,  heretic, 
Imperial  Council,  martyrdom,  dyarchy,  apology?  2.  Name 
the  emperors  of  this  century  in  chronological  order.  3.  For 
what  are  the  following  famous:  Hercules,  Pliny  the  Younger, 
Decebalus,  Tacitus,  Plutarch? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  In  what  were  Marcus  Aurelius 
and  Solomon  alike?  2.  Compare  the  Empire  of  Augustus 
in  extent  with  the  Empire  of  Trajan.  3.  Compare  Pliny 
the  Younger  with  Cicero  in  ideals,  activities  and  character. 
4.  Why  is  Juvenal  more  a  type  of  this  period  than  of  Athens 
in  the  fifth  century?  5.  What  reasons  may  be  given  for  the 
famous  saying  of  Gibbon  quoted  below?  * 

TOPICS     FOR     READING     AND     ORAL     REPORT.     1.  The 

Empire  in  the  Second  Century.  Wolfson,  pp.  422-429;  Seigno- 
bos,  ch.  22;  Botsford,  pp.  243-256;  Morey,  ch.  26;  Merivale, 
pp.  513-542;  Gibbon,  ch.  i.  2.  The  Inner  Politics  of  the 
Empire.  Abbott,  ch.  15.  3.  The  Dacian  Wars  of  Trajan. 
Bury,  pp.  421-430.  4.  Personality  and  Work  of  Hadrian. 
Merivale,  pp.  524-529;  Bury,  ch.  26.  5.  Marcus  Aurelius. 
Merivale,  pp.  538-539;  Bury,  ch.  28;  Munro,  pp.  176-178 
(source).  6.  The  Literature  of  the  Second  Century.  Botsford, 

*  "If  a  man  were  called  upon  to  fix  the  period  in  the  history  of  the 
world  during  which  the  condition  of  the  human  race  was  most  happy 
and  prosperous,  he  would,  without  hesitation,  name  that  which  elapsed 
from  the  death  of  Domitian  to  the  accession  of  Commodus." 


The  Empire  in  the  Third  Century     409 

pp.  256-262;  Bury,  pp.  475-487.  7.  Pliny  and  the  Christians. 
Laing,  pp.  468-471  (source);  Munro,  pp.  165-167  (source); 
Wolison,  p.  451;  Bury,  pp.  445-448.  8.  Tacitus  the  Historian. 
Mackail,  pp.  205-220;  Laing,  pp.  399-424.  9.  "As  an  em- 
peror I  am  a  Roman,  but  as  a  man  my  city  is  the  world." 
How  does  this  saying  reveal  the  spirit  of  the  time? 


476.  The  cloud  of  dangers  which  hung  on  the  horizon  The  Third 
of  the  second  century  rose  rapidly  and  broke  in  fierce  Cl 
storms  upon  the  third.     In  the  east  the  troubles  in  the  Par- 
thian kingdom,  which  had  aided  in  the  victorious  advance 

of  the  Romans  to  the  Persian  gulf  (§  468),  were  over.  A 
new  dynasty,  called  the  Sassanian,  professing  to  be  de- 
scended from  the  old  Persians,  united  the  warring  fac- 
tions, founded  a  strong  state  and  began  at  once  to  ad- 
vance westward  against  the  Roman  frontier.  In  the  critical 
west  the  situation  was  yet  more  critical.  The  pressure 
from  the  north  that  had  driven  the  Marcomanni  across 
the  Danube  became  well-nigh  irresistible.  New  bar- 
barian tribes  appeared.  Alamanni  and  Franks  crossed 
the  Rhine  and  overspread  Gaul  and  Spain.  Goths 
swept  over  the  Danube  and  raided  the  northeastern 
provinces,  while  their  ships  issued  from  the  Black  Sea  to 
ravage  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor.  At  one  time  it  seemed 
that  under  these  assaults  the  Empire  would  be  broken  in 
pieces. 

477.  The  legions  defending  the  frontiers  had  to  meet  these 
attacks.     Able  and  active  commanders  were  necessary. 
It  was  natural,  therefore,  that  they  should  make  them- 
selves felt  in  the  government.    There  was  no  place  for  the 
senate  to  assert  itself.    The  emperors  of  this  period  were 
made  and  unmade  by  the  armies.    The  state  was  fighting 
for  its  life,  its  different  sections  defending  themselves  as 


410    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

far  as  possible  from  their  particular  enemies.  Claimants 
for  the  throne  sprang  up  wherever  a  successful  general  had 
imperial  ambitions,  and  thus  civil  war  at  times  added  to 
the  distress.  The  average  length  of  the  reigns  of  the 
emperors  of  the  third  century  was  not  more  than  four  years. 
Yet  it  speaks  much  for  the  firm  structure  of  the  Empire 
that  the  ship  of  state  went  plunging  on  through  the  tem- 
pest, though  sorely  battered,  that  competent  captains  ap- 
peared to  pilot  it  safely  in  trying  situations,  and  that  at  last 
it  weathered  the  storm.  We  select  for  our  study  those 
emperors  who  contributed  to  this  outcome. 

478.  The  praetorians,  after  the  death  of  Commodus,  held 
the  succession  to  the  Empire  in  their  hands.  Having 
finally  sold  it  to  the  highest  bidder,  they  were  met  by  the 
opposition  of  the  three  frontier  armies  on  the  Rhine,  the 
Danube,  and  the  Euphrates,  who  proclaimed  their  own 
commanders  as  emperors.  In  the  civil  war  that  followed, 

septimius  SEPTIMIUS  SEVERUS,  of  an  African  family,  general  of  the 
army  on  the  Danube,  secured  the  throne  and  ruled  with 
vigor  as  the  first  military  emperor  (A.D.  193-211).  He 
reorganized  the  praetorians  by  substituting  his  own  soldiers 
for  the  Italians  and  increasing  their  number  to  50,000. 
He  extended  the  Empire  by  recovering  Mesopotamia, 
abandoned  by  Hadrian  (§  468).  He  ruled  as  a  prac- 
tically absolute  monarch,  disregarding  the  prerogatives  of 
the  senate.  By  taking  the  name  of  Antoninus  he  sought 
to  attach  himself  to  the  previous  dynasty,  while  he  ap- 
pointed his  sons  as  his  successors.  The  centralization 
and  extension  of  the  power  of  the  Princeps  were  his  mani- 
fest aims,  the  vigor  and  prosperity  of  his  administration 
were  evidences  of  his  success.  Yet  the  military  basis  of 

caracaiia.    his  throne  was  unsound  and  dangerous.    His  son  CARA- 


The  Military  Emperors  411 

CALLA  (A.D.  211-217)  was  a  cruel  and  wasteful  ruler  who 
was  murdered  by  the  prefect  of  the  guard.  Two  achieve- 
ments have  made  him  famous:  (i)  the  building  of  the 
"Baths  of  Caracalla"  at  Rome,  a  colossal  and  elegant 
series  of  public  baths;  (2)  his  edict  bestowing  citizenship 
upon  all  the  freemen  of  the  Empire  (A.D.  212).  This 
last  act  in  the  unification  of  the  state  was  intended  by  him 
to  bring  a  large  number  of  people  within  the  circle  of  im- 
perial taxation  and  service.  SEVERUS  ALEXANDER  (A.D.  sevems 
222-235),  a  distant  relative  of  the  house  of  Septimius,  was  Alexander- 
no  soldier.  Indeed,  his  reign  marks  a  reaction  toward 
constitutional  rule.  Though  young,  he  had  an  earnest  and 
serious  spirit  and  sought  to  conform  his  life  to  the  highest 
models.  An  Oriental  by  birth  and  sentiment,  he  was 
deeply  religious.  In  a  sanctuary  in  his  palace  he  placed 
statues  of  Abraham,  Orpheus,  Apollo  and  Jesus.  But 
such  a  temper  did  not  attract  the  legions.  His  campaigns 
were  unsuccessful  and  he  was  slain  by  a  mob  of  his  own 
soldiers. 

479.  Under  the  emperors  of  the  house  of  Septimius  Theim- 
Severus  the  importance  of  the  jurists  is  notable.     The  JJ^J, 
prefect  of  the  praetorians  had  come  to  have  charge  of  the  in  *h« 
administration  of  justice  under  the  emperor.     He  was, 
therefore,  chiefly  a  great  lawyer  and  only  secondarily  a 
military   man.     Under  these   emperors   he   became   the 
chief  minister  and  adviser  of  the  crown.    The  glory  of 
their  reigns    were    the  prefects   Papinian   and  Ulpian. 
To  them  the  emperor  was  the  source  of  justice  and  law, 
the  supreme  authority.    Thus  they  gave  a  new  theory  of 
the  Roman  constitution.     They  gathered   the   imperial 
judgments  ("rescripts")  and  orders  ("edicts"),  brought 
them  into  harmony  according  to  the  highest  ideals  of 


412    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

the  time,  and  prepared  the  way  for  a  code  of  imperial 
law. 

other  480.  The  emperors  that  followed  Alexander  from  A.D. 

ofmther°rS  235-270  battled  valiantly  against  enemies  in  east  and 
century.  west>  Qne,  DECius,  was  slain  in  battle  against  the  Goths ; 
another,  VALERIAN,  was  made  prisoner  by  the  Sassanian 
king.  AURELIAN  (A.D.  270-275)  had  better  success.  He 
restored  the  unity  of  the  Empire  by  overthrowing  Queen 
Zenobia,  who  had  set  up  an  independent  kingdom  in  the 
east  with  its  capital  at  Palmyra,  and  Tetricus,  the  head 
of  a  similar  kingdom  in  Gaul.  The  barbarians  were 
beaten  back,  Rome  was  fortified  and  a  splendid  "  triumph" 
was  held  in  the  city.  He  was  compelled,  however,  to 
abandon  Dacia  to  the  invaders.  PROBUS  (A.D.  276-282) 
was  equally  successful  against  the  barbarians.  He  thrust 
them  back  from  the  northern  frontiers  and  restored  the 
wall  connecting  the  Rhine  and  Danube.  He  transplanted 
numbers  of  these  tribes  into  the  Empire  as  settlers  and 
added  many  to  his  armies.  This  desperate  measure  was 
necessary  to  strengthen  the  waning  vigor  of  the  Roman 
military  and  civic  body.  Both  he  and  Aurelian,  however, 
were  at  last  slain  by  their  own  soldiers  while  in  the  field. 
During  these  years  of  conflict  with  enemies  without,  the 
inner  vigor  of  the  Empire  was  weakened.  The  popu- 
lation was  declining  in  numbers  and  wealth.  The  state 
was  slowly  crumbling  and,  unless  some  new  force  was 
gained  or  more  efficient  organization  devised,  its  days 
were  numbered. 

Social  481.  In  the  storms  of  the  third  century  the  social  and 

Llfe>  economic  life  of  the  state  suffered  severely.     The  old 

Roman  population  was  reduced  by  pestilence  and  war. 

Public  spirit  was  weak.    The  real  splendor  of  the  Roman 


Decline  of  the  Empire  413 

name  was  in  the  outlying  provinces;  they  gloried  in  de- 
fending the  Empire  against  the  barbarians.  Financial  Finance, 
distress  was  everywhere  present.  Trade  and  commerce, 
industry  and  manufacturing,  were  broken  down  by  inroads 
of  enemies.  The  army  swallowed  up  the  receipts  of  tax- 
ation, which  grew  steadily  heavier.  As  the  local  officials 
were  made  responsible  for  the  collection  of  taxes,  men  of 
official  rank  everywhere  sought  to  keep  out  of  the  offices. 
The  plan  of  settling  Germanic  tribes  in  the  Empire  was  settlement 
adopted  on  a  large  scale.  The  immediate  results  were  Jl^nL 
good.  The  army  was  strength  ned.  In  this  century 
the  word  for  soldier  is  "barbarian."  When  settled  on 
farms,  these  foreigners  were  called  coloni  and  were  bound 
to  remain  on  their  land.  When  the  land  was  sold,  they 
passed  over  to  the  new  proprietor  as  belonging  to  it.  Such 
persons  are  not  slaves,  but  serfs;  they  have  certain  rights 
in  the  land  to  which  they  belong.  As  the  result  of  these 
measures  agriculture  began  to  revive  in  various  regions 
of  the  Empire.  Architecture  and  other  arts  suffered  in  Architect- 
the  general  decline.  Fine  buildings  were  still  put  up,  but  "**• 
refinement  of  taste  was  wanting.  Massiveness  and  profuse 
decoration  were  the  rule.  Such  were  the  Baths  of  Cara- 
calla  and  the  splendid  temples  and  palaces  of  Palmyra. 
Portrait  statues  and  reliefs,  such  as  those  on  the  arch  of 
Septimius  Severus,  suffered  from  the  same  excess  of 
ornamental  detail.  It  is  the  old  story  of  decline  in  vigor 
made  up  for  by  imitation  of  the  past. 

482.  Religion  had  a  large  place  in  the  life  of  the  third 
century.  The  troubles  and  woes  of  the  time  led  men  every- 
where to  look  to  the  heavenly  powers  for  mercy  and  help. 
All  sorts  of  religions  found  favor.  Magic  and  astrology 
were  very  popular  with  all  classes.  In  Alexandria  a  new 


414    World-Empire  under  the  Principate 

school  of  philosophy  sprang  up  called  "New  Platonism," 
because  it  revived  the  ideas  of  Plato  (§  239)  and  sought  to 
find  comfort  and  a  rule  of  life  in  them.  The  soldiers  had 
their  religion  and,  as  they  were  the  leading  force  of  the 
time,  it  spread  widely.  This  was  the  worship  of  Mithra, 
a  Persian  deity,  represented  as  a  young  hero,  slaying  a 
bull  or  bearing  it  off  on  his  shoulders.  He  had  his  priests 
and  his  temples;  he  promised  victory  over  sin  and  im- 
mortal happiness  to  his  followers.  The  worship  of  the 
sun  as  the  source  of  all  life,  the  unconquerable  lord,  was 
a  popular  cult.  The  emperors  of  the  time  were  very 
favorable  to  these  various  religions;  they  saw  in  them  a 
source  of  strength  for  the  hard-pressed  Roman  world. 

Christian-        483.  Only  against  one  faith  were  all  alike  opposed. 

lty'  Christianity  had  to  battle  with  them  for  her  life  and  no 

one  could  foresee  the  result.  Yet  she  grew  through  all 
the  century,  undismayed  by  persecution.  The  effect  of 
her  independent  position,  opposed  as  she  was  by  the  state 

Growth  of     and  attacked  by  the  people,  began  to  appear.    Her  organi- 

tion*1"2  zation  became  more  centralized.  Among  the  elders  or 
bishops  of  the  churches,  here  and  there,  a  leader  appeared 
who  stood  at  the  head  of  the  Christians  of  the  city  and 
became  the  Bishop;  the  elders  or  presbyters  became 
"priests"*  under  the  bishop's  authority;  churches  of  a 
district  united  for  the  settlement  of  questions  common  to 
them  by  sending  their  priests  to  a  synod,  presided  over  by 
a  bishop.  Thus  a  distinction  between  the  clergy  and  the 

The  lay  members  began  to  arise.     Bishops  in  such  centres  as 

irarchy.    Antioch,  Alexandria  or  Rome,  where  the  Christians  were 

many,  were  called  Archbishops  or  Metropolitans.    The 

church  at  Rome  came  to  have  a  special  position.    It  was 

*  The  word  "priest"  is  a  contracted  form  of  the  word  "presbyter." 


Q3 


•     s 


The  Christian  Church  415 

thought  that  Peter,  the  leader  of  Jesus's  disciples,  was  The 

Rom 
Church. 


its  founder  and  thus  gave  it  leadership  over  the  other  Roman 


churches.     Its  Bishop  was  thus  led  to  make  peculiar 
claims  to  headship  in  the  Church.     In  all  this  advance  of 
the  Church  we  see  it  begin  to  shape  itself  on  the  model  of 
the  imperial  organization  and  to  stand  up  over  against  it. 
Leaders  of  thought  began  to  come  forward.     In  Alexan-   christia 
dria,  a  school  of  Christian  teaching  was  formed,  the  most  WnterSl 
brilliant    ornament    of  which  was   Origen.      In  North 
Africa,   Christianity  was  particularly  strong.    Here  the 
great  names  were  Tertullian  and  Cyprian,  who  by  their 
writings  defended  the   Church    against   enemies  within 
and  without.    A  Christian  art  began  to  appear.    Upon  Art 
gravestones  and  chapels  the  dove,  the  good  shepherd 
and  the  lamb,  favorite  symbols  of  the  new  faith,  were 
rudely  carved  or  painted. 

OUTLINE  FOR  REVIEW 
III.    THE  EMPIRE  OF  ROME 

l.  The  Making  of  Rome.  2.  Rome's  Western  Empire.  3.  Rome's 
Eastern  Empire. 

4.  ROME'S  WORLD-EMPIRE. 

(i)  The  world -empire  under  the  Principate  [Julian  and  Flavian 
lines,  constitutional  emperors] — Empire  in  the  third  century — 
troubles  without — military  defence — emperors  made  by  legions — 
the  most  important— their  personality  and  history— rise  of  legal 
science  and  imperial  law — decline  of  the  state — barbarians  settled 
in  the  empire — revival  of  religion  (new  Platonism,  Mithra,  Chris- 
tianity, a  close  organization,  literature  and  art). 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  I.  Name  the  chief  Emperors  of  the 
century.  2.  For  what  are  the  following  significant:  Zenobia, 
Ulpian,  Origen?  3.  What  is  meant  by  coloni,  priest,  New 
Platonism,  Edict,  Sassanian?  4.  What  is  the  date  of  the 
Edict  of  Caracalla? 


416     World-Empire  under  the  Despotism 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  Greek  religion  in  the 
sixth  century  B.C.  (§  124)  with  the  religion  of  this  age — what 
similar  conditions  and  results?  2.  How  do  the  barbarian  in- 
vasions resemble  those  that  afflicted  the  Oriental  world  (§§  14, 

38,  40,  54,   78,  81)? 

TOPICS     FOR    READING    AND    ORAL    REPORT.      1.   The 

Empire  in  the  Third  Century.  Gibbon,  pp.  21-83;  Morey,  ch. 
27;  Merivale,  pp.  542-569;  Seignobos,  pp.  373-390;  West,  pp. 
428-431;  Wolfson,  pp.  457-458.  2.  The  Emperor  and  His 
Administration.  Abbott,  4jp.  329-3,4;  Botsford,  pp.  276-278. 
3.  The  Jurists  of  the  Empire.  Seignobos,  pp.  383-384;  West, 
p.  420;  Botsford,  pp.  269-270.  4.  Severus  Alexander.  Gibbon, 
PP-  37.  38;  Merivale,  pp.  5:5,  556.  5.  The  Sassanian  Kings. 
Gibbon,  pp.  39-42;  Bjt:f  rd,  pp.  271-272.  6.  Zenobia  and 
Palmyra.  Gibbon  pp.  70-73. 


(2)   THE  WORLD-EMPIRE   UNDER  THE 
DESPOTISM 

A.D.  284-395 

The  484.  The  new  organization  of  the  state  which  was  de- 

or^ze^?"  manded  by  the  times  was  started  by  an  emperor  at  the 

close  of  the  century.    Among  the  able  lieutenants  that  the 

valiant  emperors  Aurelian  and  Probus  gathered  about 

them  and  trained  in  the  fierce  battles  with  Goths  and 

Diocletian.    Persians  were  Diocletian  and  Maximian.     The  legions 

chose  DIOCLETIAN  as  emperor  (A.D.  284-305)  to  defend 

and  restore  the  decaying  Empire.    He  responded  by  a  new 

The  Plan      plan  of  imperial  organization  to  meet  the  difficulties  of 

gln^zati"on.   tne  times,     (i)  To  solve  the  problem  of  the  succession 

he  associated  with  himself  as  colleague  MAXIMIAN,  giving 

him  the  title  of  Augustus,  and  took  as  assistants  GALERIUS 

and  CONSTANTIUS,  giving  them  the  title  of  Caesar.    Hence, 


CHART  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  ROMAN  WORLD.      285-800  A.D. 


303 
]     Persecution  of  Christians.                                           Dloc 
311                           305  Abdication  ofDiocletiau. 
311  Galerius'  Edict  of  Toleration.          *" 
313  Edict  of  Milan.                              „ 
324  Empire  united  under  Cmistal.tine."" 
325  Council  of  Nlcaea. 

887  1-~ 

etlMI           Period  of  re-organization  of  the  Empire. 
d 

autlnt 
326  Constantinople  founded. 

i  S  „                          Persecution  of 
u                    392  Pagan  rites  for 

Christians. 
Jill  iai 

'  "'"-'"•                .„  d 
^ERN          Theod  osi 

363  Julian  killed  in  Parthian  war. 

EAS 
I   5  \                                            EM 

at  Adrianople. 
w                         WESTERN 
EMP  RE 

1          I                                              A.e'aJ 
Per 
to        43S  Theodoslan  Code.         o 
§                                                   we 

'us  410  Rome  captured  by  Alaric.           ^Qli  urlui* 
412  Visigoths  found  kingdom 
lod                                                                                                   in  Spain. 
o  f       429  Vandals  in  Afr  ca. 

ak                                                               E"'pe  ''Ml  Anglo-Saxo",;!  „  B  ilain. 

Emper 

Or8   451  Battle  of  Cha  ous.                                                                p()]> 
455  Rome  captured  by  Vandals.                                               Ull! 

Imperial  Insignia  sent  to  Zeno                                  ^^ 

*Uo 

H  STATE 
Franks, 
ristianity. 

Kev 

•  481  Clovis  unites  tl|e 
al                                                                          j  496  Clovis  accepts  £ 

Ea  s 
Code    J 

of  Justlinia 

iBdaHol 
526    f» 

534  Africa  conquered  by  Justinian.         1  534  Franks  conque 

Burgundiaus. 

Jiisliuiau  1 
565*  

553  Italy  conquered  by  Justinian.            |                                    g 
568  Lombards  Jiold 
No,,h    ,t|, 

?5 

{97  Augustine 
|      in  Britain. 

Hera 

MOHAM 
PO 
622  Flight  of  Mohar 

'fe  Death  of  Mohan 
637  Mohammedans 
641  Mohammedans 

MEERDAN                                   604  ""«'••"         '' 
med  from  Mecca. 

ned. 
apture  Jerusalem.          63S  Division  iifFrai 
onquer  Egypt.                                Austrasia  an. 

cunt  rid. 

Eastern 

Kl  Mohammedans 

668  Mohammeda  is 
Empei'ora 

onquer  Persia.                                              g 
rfore  Coii8taiitinoi>le. 

i 

Leo  III 

Iconoclastic  Controversy. 

711  Mohammedans 

the  (saurian 
732  Charles  Martel 

•onquer  Spain. 

Boniface  Apostle 
to  Germany.          J 

714   Charles 
Martel 

;51  Pippin  bee 

755  Pij  icom   els  Lombards     S&S 
to  give  ter      01  y              s^X/* 
to  Pope.                      aV1^^ 
71  Charlemagne  conn     r*     4$8r 
the  homlmrds.              OT^ 
t«,.    ^Emperor  ol  tlie  1 

mes  King. 

Diocletian's  Imperial  Reorganization    417 

there  was  always  one  at  hand  to  succeed  to  the  throne. 
(2)  To  meet  the  necessity  of  defending  so  great  an  Empire 
from  its  enemies,  he  assigned  Maximian  to  Italy  and  the 
western  provinces  with  Constantius  under  him  in  charge 
of  Gaul,  Spain  and  Britain,  and  himself  took  the  east 
with  Galerius  under  him  in  charge  of  Illyria.  His  capital 
was  at  Nicomedia  in  Asia  Minor;  that  of  Maximian 
at  Milan  in  Italy.  (3)  For  a  better  administration  of  the 
state,  he  split  up  the  provinces,  making  about  one  hundred 
m  all.  These  were  united  into  twelve  "dioceses."  (4) 
To  guard  against  misuse  of  power,  he  separated  the  military 
from  the  civil  authority.  Governors  of  provinces  were  civil 
officers.  Generals  (counts  and  dukes)  had  charge  of  the 
soldiery.  (5)  A  very  complex  organization  of  the  offi- 
cials of  the  state  was  introduced;  all  were  closely  bound 
together,  each  dependent  on  the  one  above  him  in  rank, 
until  the  culmination  was  reached  in  the  emperor.  Each 
rank  of  officials  had  its  appropriate  title.  The  supreme 
emperor  was  far  above  all  other  mortals  and  surrounded 
himself  with  Oriental  pomp  and  form;  he  wore  a  diadem 
and  was  called  Dominus,  "lord";  the  subject  was  servus, 
"slave." 

485.  Thus  by  these  measures  the  principate  perished  and  A  Des- 
an  absolute  monarchy  took  its  place.    The  republic  with  its  potism 
constitution  and  magistrates,  princeps,  senate,  assemblies, 
citizens,  was  abolished.*    The  pre-eminence  of  Rome  and 
Italy  vanished.     All  that  had  been  built  up  by  Augustus 
with  such  marvellous  skill,  and,  for  three  centuries,  had, 
in  form  at  least,  been  the  basis  of  Roman  government, 

*  The  consulate  remained  as  an  honorary  magistracy,  giving  its  name 
to  the  year.     Other  institutions  continued,  but  without  political  signifi- 


418     World-Empire  under  the  Despotism 

passed  away.  That  it  should  perish  was  proper,  for  it  had 
done  its  work  and  was  unequal  to  the  new  demands.  But 
the  meaning  of  the  change  now  introduced  must  not  be 
overlooked.  The  World- Empire  of  Rome  was  essentially 
transformed.  The  experiment  in  government,  which 
sought  to  combine  republican  institutions  with  effective 
administration  of  an  empire,  was  over. 

The  Per-         486.  His  plan  of  reorganization  proves  Diocletian  to 
DfocktLuL    have  been  a  wise  and  practical  statesman,  as  well  as  a 
skilful  soldier.     He  was  of  humble  origin,  the  son  of  a 
freedman  of  Dalmatia,  and  had  worked  his  way  up  from 
the  ranks.     Tall  and  spare  of  body,  he  had  a  clear  mind, 
reflected  in  a  face  with  finely  cut  features,  and  an  attractive 
personality  which  made  firm  friends.     With  a  strong  will 
that  pursued  its  way  resistlessly,  and  used  all  men  to  fur- 
ther its  designs,  he  had  one  weakness  common  to  his  age 
— a  vein  of  religious  superstition  which  caused  him  to  set 
much  store  by  omens  and  signs,  and  to  pay  passionate 
heed  to  the  utterances  of  magicians  and  astrologers. 
Good  Re-         487.  Under  his  skilful  ministration  the  exhausted  Em- 
the^New      Pire  was  reviyed  and  leaped  to  its  feet.     The  coinage  was 
Plan.  improved  and  finances  restored.     New  taxes  were  im- 

posed, but  their  burden  was  wisely  distributed  among  the 
various  classes  of  society.  Military  reforms,  particularly 
the  creation  of  a  field-army  in  addition  to  the  legions  on 
the  frontiers,  available  wherever  the  need  was  greatest, 
brought  the  disturbed  frontiers  into  order.  Laws  were 
issued  bearing  on  all  sides  of  life;  it  was  even  attempted 
to  regulate  prices  by  legislation.  Imperial  cities  were 
adorned  with  new  and  splendid  buildings,  and  old  founda- 
tions were  renewed.  Inscriptions  of  the  time  hail  the 
period  as  the  "happy  era"  of  general  betterment. 


Constantino  419 

488.  His  religious  weakness  brought  upon  him  a  serious 
conflict.     In  his  zeal  for  the  revival  of  the  ancient  Roman 
worship,  he  sought  to  suppress  the  Christians.    Although 
they  were  in  his  court  and  his  legions  and  formed  the  most 
influential  and  progressive  element  in  the  state,  his  un- 
relenting, almost  fanatical,  spirit  did  not  flinch  from  the 
struggle.     He  did  not  use  bloody  means;  his  plan  was 
rather  by  destroying  churches,  silencing  leaders  and  seiz- 
ing property  to  bring  Christianity  gradually  into  contempt  its  Failure, 
and  weakness.     He  failed.     His  edict  against  the  Faith 

was  only  partially  respected  in  the  west,  and  down  to  the 
end  of  his  reign  the  struggle  went  on.  During  his  own 
lifetime  —  after  his  abdication  (§489) — his  successor, 
Galerius,  issued  his  Edict  of  Toleration  (A.D.  311),  which 
gave  the  Christians  freedom  to  worship  in  public  and 
private  on  condition  of  paying  due  respect  to  the  laws. 

489.  A  more  remarkable  weakness  in  his  system  re-  Difficulties 
vealed  itself.     Worn  out  with  his  incessant  labors,  Dio-  ^cession 
cletian  determined  to  retire  from  his  imperial  position. 

In  A.D.  305,  after  twenty  years  of  rule,  he  abdicated  and 
retired  to  Dalmatia  to  spend  in  private  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  He  persuaded  his  colleague,  Maximian,  to  follow 
his  example.  The  Caesars  stepped  into  their  places  and 
new  Caesars  were  appointed.  Soon,  however,  difficulties 
sprang  up  between  the  rulers.  The  son  of  Constantius, 
CONSTANTINE,  was  proclaimed  imperator  by  his  legions 
in  the  west.  The  Roman  world  saw  the  emperors  in- 
volved in  conflict  with  each  other  for  the  supremacy.  The 
outcome  was  the  victory  of  Constantine,  who  in  A.D.  324  constan 
became  sole  emperor  (A.D.  324-337). 

490.  Constantine  was  thirty-two  years  of  age,  a  man  His  Per- 
of  heroic  stature,  handsome  ana  strong.     Tradition  tells 


420     World-Empire  under  the  Despotism 

of  his  piercing  eye  and  commanding  dignity.  A  brave 
warrior,  he  won  many  of  his  battles  by  his  own  personal 
courage  and  strength  in  single  combat.  Shrewd  and  self- 
contained,  never  thrown  off  his  guard,  quick  to  seize  an 
opportunity,  with  a  religious  sense  akin  to  Diocletian's 
and  a  love  of  praise  and  pomp  which  he  gratified  by  the 
Oriental  splendor  of  his  dress  and  court,  he  carried  out 
the  spirit  of  Diocletian's  policy  to  the  end.  From  the  men 
of  his  own  time  and  from  succeeding  ages  he  has  won  the 
His  TWO  title  of  "the  Great."  Of  all  his  achievements  two  have 
tions"toU"  giyen  him  this  special  claim  to  remembrance:  (i)  his 
Progress,  transference  of  the  imperial  capital  from  Rome  to  a  new 
city  on  the  Bosphorus,  named  from  him  Constantinople: 
(2)  his  reconciliation  of  the  Empire  with  Christianity. 
The  New  4QI.  Constantinople  was  placed  on  the  site  of  the  Greek 
apitai.  c«j.y  Q£  Byzant;iiim.  It  was  most  wisely  placed  for  the 
capital  of  an  Empire  that  extended  from  the  Euphrates  to 
Britain.  From  it  the  emperor  could  survey  his  domain 
on  either  side  and  most  easily  control  its  several  parts. 
Commerce  found  it  a  most  convenient  centre  and  its  har- 
bors were  unsurpassed.  It  lay  near,  yet  not  too  near,  to 
the  Danube,  the  frontier  whence  danger  from  the  bar- 
barians was  most  pressing.  It  was  easy  of  defence  by 
land  and  sea,  lying  on  seven  hills  and  protected  on  three 
sides  by  water.  The  emperor  proposed  to  call  it  New 
Rome,  and,  although  the  name  commemorating  its  founder 
has  been  preferred  by  after  ages,  the  result  contemplated 
by  him  took  place — the  supremacy  of  old  Rome  passed 
to  its  new  rival.  Here  the  court  was  set  up,  here  mag- 
nificent palaces  were  built,  from  here  the  imperial  admin- 
istration ruled  the  Roman  world.  Rome  sank  to  the  level 
of  a  provincial  city,  mighty  in  its  past  alone,  until  it  rose 


Constantine  and  Christianity 


421 


again  to  be  the  capital  of  a  spiritual  state,  the  seat  of  the 
Roman  Church. 

492.  Already,  before  he  became  sole  emperor,  Constan-  Recogni- 
tine  had  seen  how  great  a  power  Christianity  had  become,  £™  °! 
and  by  his  friendly  attitude  won  the  Christians  to  his  side  «ty. 


His  father,  though  never  breaking  with  the  old  religion, 
had  inclined  to  the  worship  of  one  god,  and  the  son  fol- 
lowed his  example.  In  A.D.  313  he  published  the  Edict 
of  Milan,  by  which  larger  tolerance  was  granted  to  Chris- 
tianity than  Galerius  had  given  (§  488).  As  time  went 
on  and  he  became  the  lord  of  the  Roman  world,  his  favor 
was  shown  more  clearly  by  his  edicts  and  by  his  personal 
kindness  to  Christian  bishops.  He  read  the  Scriptures. 
He  presided  at  a  famous  council  of  Christian  bishops  at 
Nicaea  CA.D.  325),  where  an  important  theological  ques- 


422     World-Empire  under  the  Despotism 

tion  was  decided — whether  Jesus  Christ  was  the  same  as 
Constants*  God  or  only  like  him.*  In  the  hour  of  death  he  was  bap- 
tiln.  r  "  tized  into  the  Church,  and  thus  personally  confessed  Chris- 
tianity. But,  as  emperor,  he  refused  to  take  sides;  if  he 
granted  favors  to  Christians,  he  also  consecrated  temples 
and  gave  privileges  to  priests  of  the  old  Roman  cult.  Nor 
was  his  conduct  ever  deeply  influenced  by  Christian  teach- 
ing. He  sought  to  reconcile  all  worshippers  of  every  god 
and  use  them  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  Empire.  Yet  his 
personal  attitude  toward  Christianity  was  more  potent 
than  his  official  neutrality.  From  his  reign  dates  the  be- 
ginning of  the  victory  of  Christianity  over  the  ancient 
faiths  of  the  Roman  world  and  the  union  between  the 
Church  and  the  Empire. 

Eusebius,  the  Church  historian  and  friend  of  Constantine,  tells 
us,  in  his  life  of  the  emperor,  that  Constantine,  before  he  become  sole 
emperor,  while  marching  against  one  of  his  rivals,  uncertain  as  to  his 
duty  to  God,  beheld  a  wonderful  vision.  As  the  day  was  declining, 
he  saw  the  representation  of  a  cross  of  light  in  the  heavens,  above  the 
sun,  and  bearing  the  inscription,  Conquer  by  this!  At  this  sight  he 
himself  was  struck  with  amazement,  and  his  whole  army  also,  which 
followed  him  on  the  expedition  and  witnessed  the  miracle.  While 
pondering  on  the  vision,  he  fell  into  a  sleep  in  which  Christ  appeared 
to  him  with  the  same  sign  and  bade  him  make  a  likeness  of  it  as  a 
standard  for  his  army.  He  obeyed,  and  produced  what  was  called 
the  Labarum,  a  banner  hung  from  a  cross-bar  on  a  spear,  at  the 
top  of  which  was  a  wreath  containing  in  its  centre  a  monogram  for 
the  name  of  Christ.  From  this  time  forth  Constantine  was  at  heart 
a  Christian. 

Successors        493-  On  the  death  of  Constantine,  his  three  sons  fol- 
stantinc       lowed  him  as  emperors  in  the  east  and  west  (A.D.  337-353) 

*  Those  who  held  the  latter  view  were  led  by  the  Bishop  Arius  and 
were  hence  called  Arians.  The  question  was  decided  against  them  in 
the  Nicene  Council. 


PLATE  XXlll 


The  Arch  of  Constantine  at  Rome 


A  Roman  Aqueduct  in  Gaul 
CHARACTERISTIC   ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE 


Arms  and  Athanasius  423 

until  one  of  them,  CONSTANTIUS,  became  sole  emperor 
(A.D.  353-360).  After  him  came  another  member  of  the 
house  of  Constantine,  JULIAN  (A.D.  361-363).  His  death 
on  the  eastern  frontier  was  followed  by  the  elevation  of 
several  generals  of  the  armies,  until  a  vigorous  and  suc- 
cessful warrior,  THEODOSIUS  (A.D.  379-395),  at  first  em- 
peror in  the  east,  succeeded  in  uniting  the  Empire  again. 
The  renewal  of  barbarian  invasions  after  his  death  on  a 
scale  hitherto  unparalleled,  and  the  establishment  of  their 
independent  states  in  the  Empire,  has  made  the  year  of 
his  death,  A.D.  395,  a  significant  turning  point  in  history. 

494.  While  the  inroads  on  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine  Christian- 
continued,  and  the  Persians  in  the  east  were  constantly  l£^ethe 
threatening  the  Roman  provinces,  the  uppermost  ques- 
tion in  the  history  of  this  half-century  was  the  relation  of 
the  Empire  to  Christianity.  The  Church,  superbly  or- 
ganized under  its  bishops,  and  having  its  greatest  strength 
in  the  cities,*  offered  itself  as  a  useful  ally  to  the  imperial 
power.  A  fierce  conflict  about  the  doctrine  which  had 
been  in  dispute  at  the  council  of  Nicaea  (§  492)  was  rending 
the  Church  in  twain.  Arianism  sought  to  reassert  itself  church, 
against  its  opposing  view,  which  being  accepted  in  that 
council  was  called  Orthodoxy  or  the  "right  doctrine." 
The  sons  of  Constantine  had  been  reared  as  Christians, 
but  Constantius  accepted  the  Arian  view.  Hence,  the 
Arians  sought  to  obtain  his  help  to  gain  their  victory. 
Although,  as  emperor,  he  sought  to  remain,  like  his  father, 
neutral  in  religious  matters,  he  could  not  help  being  drawn 

*A  remarkable  illustration  of  this  are  our  words  "Pagan,"  which 
means  "dweller  in  a  village,"  and  "Heathen,"  "dweller  on  the  heath" 
or  "country."  Christianity  made  its  way  very  slowly  among  the 
country  people.  Hence  "Paganism"  and  "Heathenism"  are  used  to 
signify  the  non-Christian  religions  of  the  ancient  world. 


424     World-Empire  under  the  Despotism 

into  the  struggle.  The  Empire  took  the  side  of  Arianism 
Over  against  him  as  representing  orthodoxy  was  Athana- 
sius,  the  brilliant  and  unscrupulous  bishop  of  Alexandria, 
The  result  of  the  conflict  was  the  triumph  of  Arianism 
its  Efiect.  by  the  aid  of  imperial  authority.  The  moment  was  full 
of  meaning,  not  because  of  the  triumph  of  this  or  that 
doctrine,  but  because  it  brought  the  union  of  the  Em- 
pire and  the  Church  a  long  step  nearer.  Julian,  who 
sought  to  revive  paganism  and  repress  Christianity,  was 
an  interesting  character,  but  his  attempt  was  futile.  In 
Christian  annals  he  is  branded  as  "the  apostate."  The 
emperors  who  followed  favored  the  Church  more  and  more, 
victory  of  One  of  them,  GRATIAN,  withdrew  all  imperial  support  from 
ity'ovlr11"  the  public  worship  of  the  heathen  gods.  In  A.D.  392 
paganism.  Theodosius  issued  an  edict,  forbidding  all  practice  of  the 
old  religion.  This  date  marks  the  formal  downfall  of 
paganism  and  the  victory  of  Christianity  in  the  Roman 
world.  At  the  same  time,  this  emperor  exalted  the 
orthodox  doctrine;  he  forbade  and  punished  Arianism 
and  all  other  false  teachings  of  the  true  faith.  He  prac- 
tically made  Christianity  the  religion  of  the  Empire. 
Henceforth  bishops  and  emperors  joined  hands  for  the 
rule  of  the  Roman  world. 

Union  of         495.  Let  us  stop  a  moment  to  consider  what  this  meant. 
chTrch  and  ^n  the  ancient  world,  the  part  of  religion  was  to  serve  the 
state.     It  was  one  of  the  elements  of  public  life  which 
made  up  the  state.    The  ruler  was  the  head  of  the  re- 
The victory  ligious  system.     But  Christianity  had  grown  up  outside 
oteCrhurCh     Public  life;  it  obeyed  no  earthly  ruler;  Jesus  Christ,  the 
Empire.       son  of  God,  was  its  supreme  master.     Hence,  in  uniting 
with  the  state,  it  came  in  as  an  equal,  nay,  rather,  as  rep- 
resenting a  Lord  to  whom  the  emperor,  too,  must  bow. 


Union  of  the  Church  and  the  Empire    425 

Therefore,  the  union  of  Christianity  and  the  Empire 
brought  with  it  the  victory  of  the  Church  over  the  Em- 
pire. Before  the  authority  of  its  Christ  there  could  be 
no  equal  power.  Hence,  this  moment  in  history  reveals  to 
us  that  we  are  approaching  the  border  of  a  new  age.  The 
Ancient  World  is  passing  away. 

The  position  occupied  by  the  Church  is  illustrated  by  the  famous 
"penance"  of  Theodosius.  He  had  been  stirred  by  a  rebellious  act 
of  a  mob  in  the  city  of  Thessalonica  to  order  the  massacre  of  the 
inhabitants.  At  least  7,000  people  perished.  Ambrose,  the  bishop 
of  Milan,  was  horrified  by  this  crime.  When  Theodosius  ap- 
proached the  church  to  worship,  he  was  met  by  the  bishop,  who  for- 
bade him  entrance  and  laid  before  him  the  conditions  on  which 
God's  pardon  could  be  obtained.  Taking  off  his  royal  robes,  he 
must  appear  in  the  church  as  a  penitent  and  beg  for  mercy  from  God. 
The  emperor  submitted,  and,  after  eight  months  of  probation,  Am- 
brose absolved  him  from  guilt  and  restored  him  to  the  communion 
of  the  Church. 

OUTLINE  FOR  REVIEW 
III.   THE  EMPIRE   OF  ROME 

i.  The  Making  of  Rome.  2.  Rome's  Western  Empire.  3.  Rome's 
Eastern  Empire. 

4.  ROME'S  WORLD-EMPIRE. 

(i)  [The  world-empire  under  the  Principate]— (2)  The  world- 
empire  under  the  Despotism— the  empire  reorganized  by  Diocle- 
tian— despotism  substituted  for  principate — character  and  work 
of  Diocletian— Constantine  sole  emperor— character— his  two 
achievements— his  successors— Theodosius— Christianity  and  the 
Arian  heresy— the  Empire's  part  in  the  struggle— what  it  meant. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  What  is  the  meaning  of  bishop, 
diocese,  orthodoxy,  pagan,  New  Rome,  labarum?  2.  For 
what  are  the  following  famous:  Ambrose,  Gratian,  Athanasius, 
Julian,  Mithra?  3.  What  is  the  date  of  the  Edict  of  Tolera- 
tion, of  the  Council  of  Nicsea? 


426  End  of  the  Ancient  Period 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  What  circumstances  and  con- 
ditions  existed  at  this  time  to  justify  and  make  possible  the 
Despotism  which  did  not  exist  in  the  time  of  Augustus? 
2.  Compare  the  position  of  Christianity  in  the  state  under 
Constantine  to  that  of  religion  in  the  ancient  Oriental  states 
(§§  34.  91)- 

TOPICS     FOR     READING    AND     ORAL     REPORT.     1.  The 

Reorganization  of  the  Empire.  Morey,  ch.  28;  Botsford,  pp. 
278-280,  285-288;  West,  pp.  434-439;  Merivale,  ch.  70;  Gib- 
bon, pp.  91-95,  132-143;  Seignobos,  pp.  390-392,  406-409. 
2.  Constantine  and  Christianity.  Munro,  p.  1 75  (source) ;  West, 
pp.  438-445;  Botsford,  pp.  282-283;  Merivale,  ch.  71;  Gibbon, 
pp.  120-240.  3.  The  Edicts  of  the  Emperors  in  Relation  to 
Christianity.  Munro,  pp.  174-176  (sources)'  Gibbon,  pp.  118- 
119.  4.  The  Council  of  Nicaea.  Seignobos,  pp.  400-401.  5. 
Julian  and  Pagan  Learning.  Merivale,  ch.  73;  Seignobos,  pp. 
412-413;  Gibbon,  ch.  12.  6.  Theodosius.  Merivale,  pp.  6 1 6- 
623;  Seignobos,  pp.  416-420;  Gibbon,  pp.  207-221.  7.  Con- 
stantinople and  Rome.  Munro,  pp.  236-237  (source);  Gibbon, 
pp.  123—132;  Botsford,  pp.  283—285;  Merivale,  pp.  587—590; 
Seignobos,  pp.  403-404.  8.  Society  in  the  Fourth  Century. 
West,  pp.  449-457- 


(3)  THE  BREAKING  UP  OF  THE  WORLD- 
EMPIRE  AND  THE  END  OF  THE 
ANCIENT  PERIOD 

A.D.  395-800 

The  Last         496.  The  four  centuries,  A.D.  400-800,  form  the  last 
fu°r"ersc0efn"    great  Era  of  Transition  in  the  history  of  the  Ancient  World. 
Rome.         Everything  was  in  confusion;  everywhere  ancient  races 
were  yielding  to  fresh  and  vigorous  peoples,  old  and  es- 
tablished forms  of  organization  were  breaking  down  and 
new  institutions  were  forming  to  correspond  to  the  new 
life.    The  struggle  was  long,  the  changes  slow  in  taking 


Barbarian  Invasions  427 

place,  but  the  end  was  the  transformation  of  the  old  world 
into  the  Middle  Age. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY* 

For  bibliography  for  advanced  students  and  teachers,  see  Appendix  I. 
THATCHER  AND  SCHWILL.     A  General  History  of  Europe.     Scribners. 

The  early  chapters  have  a  full  and  spirited  account  of  the  decline 

of  the  Empire  and  the  rise  of  the  barbarian  kingdoms. 
ROBINSON.     History  oj  Western  Europe.     Ginn  and  Co.    An  excellent 

book,  especially  strong  on  the  social  elements  of  the  history. 
CHURCH.     The  Beginning  oj  the  Middle  Ages.     Scribners.     Not  a  new 

book,  but  by  an  admirable  scholar  and  of  permanent  value  for  the 

period  A.D.  400-800. 

497.  The  death  of  Theodosius  p  aced  the  administra-  The  Bar- 
tion  of  the  Empire  in  the  hands  of  his  two  sons.  ARCADIUS  Jf/iuge. 
received  the  eastern  portion,  HONORIUS  the  west.  Both 
were  young  and  incapable.  The  barbarians,  some  of 
them  already  over  the  border  and  restrained  in  their 
seats  only  by  the  strong  hand  of  Theodosius,  soon  broke 
loose;  some  fell  upon  the  provinces,  others  threatened 
the  very  heart  of  the  Empire.  Goths,  divided  into  East 
(Ostro)  Goths  and  West  (Visi)  Goths,  came  down  from 
the  north  and  northeast;  Vandals,  Suevi,  Burgundians, 
Alamanni,  and  Franks  burst  into  the  western  provinces. 
The  very  year  of  the  death  of  Theodosius  (A.D.  395),  the 
Visigoths,  who  had  been  already  admitted  into  the  Dan-  Visigoths, 
ubian  provinces,  rose  under  Alaric,  their  chieftain,  and 
marched  into  Italy.  Stilicho,  the  general  of  Honorius, 
successfully  resisted  them,  until,  out  of  jealousy  and  fear, 
he  was  murdered  by  his  royal  master.  Then  Alaric  was 
able  to  overrun  Italy  and  even  to  capture  Rome  (A.D.  410). 
The  Suevi  had  penetrated  into  Spain,  where  they  were 

*  For  previous  bibliographies  see  pp.  4,  10,  75,  249,  359. 


428  End  of  the  Ancient  Period 

Vandals.  followed  by  the  Vandals.  Upon  the  death  of  Alaric,  the 
Visigoths  left  Italy  and  moved  westward  into  Spain,  where 
they  set  up  a  kingdom  (A.D.  412)  which  was  to  last  for 
three  hundred  years.  The  Vandals  retired  before  them 
into  Africa  (A.D.  429),  where  they  also  established  a  king- 
dom under  their  leader  Gaiseric.  As  if  this  were  not 
enough,  the  cause  of  this  tremendous  upheaval  of  the 
German  tribes  now  appeared  on  the  scene  in  the  advance 
Huns.  of  the  Huns,  a  people  of  alien  race  and  strange  manners, 
wild  savage  warriors,  rushing  down  out  of  the  far  northeast 
from  their  homes  in  Central  Asia.  Under  their  king,  At- 
tila,  they  were  united  and  organized  into  a  formidable  host, 
which  included  also  Germans  and  Slavs.  Attila  had 
no  less  a  purpose  than  to  overthrow  the  Roman  Empire 
and  set  up  a  new  Hunnish  state  upon  its  ruins.  "  Though 
a  barbarian,  Attila  was  by  no  means  a  savage.  He  prac- 
tised the  arts  of  diplomacy,  often  sent  and  received  em- 
bassies and  respected  the  international  laws  and  customs 
which  then  existed."  After  ravaging  the  east  as  far  as 
the  Euphrates,  he  turned  to  the  west,  crossed  the  Rhine 
and  invaded  Gaul.  There  he  was  met  by  an  imperial 
army  under  Aetius  and  was  defeated  and  turned  back  in 
Battle  of  a  fierce  struggle  at  the  "Catalaunian  Fields"  (Chalons) 
chaions.  jn  A  D  ^^  Wj1jcj1  [s  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the 
decisive  battles  of  history.  Two  years  after  he  died,  and 
with  his  death  the  Hunnish  peril  was  over. 

weaklings  498.  The  emperors  during  this  period  were  weak  men 
Throne  an(^  meffective  rulers,  often  set  up  and  always  upheld  by 
their  armies,  which  were  made  up  almost  entirely  of  Ger- 
mans and  led  by  men  of  the  same  race.  Stilicho  was  a 
Vandal.  Ricimer,  another  imperial  general,  was  a  Sue- 
vian.  The  emperors  of  the  west  emphasized  still  more 


Fall  of  Western  Empire  429 

their  impotence  by  placing  the  seat  of  government  at 
Ravenna,  an  almost  inaccessible  fortress  on  the  Adriatic 
sea.  The  rest  of  Italy  might  suffer  from  the  marches  and 
contests  of  rival  armies,  while  they  were  secure.  Thus 
they  beheld,  in  A.D.  455,  the  capture  and  sack  of  Rome  by 
Gaiseric,  the  Vandal  king  of  Africa,  repeated  in  A.D.  472 
by  Ricimer.  Following  Honorius,  a  succession  of  nine 
weaklings  kept  up  a  pretence  of  imperial  rule,  until  ROM- 
ULUS AUGUSTULUS,  a  mere  boy,  was  set  upon  the  throne. 
His  German  mercenaries,  irritated  by  a  refusal  to  grant  F»II  of 
them  lands  on  which  to  settle,  took  as  their  leader  Odo- 
vacar,  the  Rugian,  captured  the  emperor  and  forced  him 
to  resign  his  office  (A.D.  476).  Then  the  imperial  insignia 
were  sent  to  the  emperor  of  the  east,  ZENO,  who  thus  be- 
came sole  emperor  and  appointed  Odovacar  governor  of 
Italy.  In  fact  the  latter  ruled  Italy  as  a  king,  while,  as  we 
have  seen  (§  497),  other  parts  of  the  west  did  not  even  for- 
mally acknowledge  the  emperor's  authority.  For  this 
reason  the  year  A.D.  476  is  often  regarded  as  a  turning 
point  in  the  history  of  Rome  as  marking  the  fall  of  the 
Western  Empire. 

499.  But  peace  was  still  far  off.  The  Ostrogoths,  who  Ostrogoth* 
lived  an  unsettled  and  warring  life  in  the  Danubian  prov-  J 
inces  of  the  eastern  emperor,  set  out,  under  their  leader, 
Theodoric,  to  contest  with  Odovacar  the  possession  of  Italy. 
The  struggle  ended  with  Theodoric  as  victor  and  king  of 
Italy.  He  ruled  it  for  more  than  thirty  years  (A.D.  493-526), 
wisely  and  prosperously.  "He  restored  the  aqueducts 
and  walls  of  many  cities,  repaired  the  roads,  drained 
marshes,  reopened  mines,  cared  for  public  buildings,  pro- 
moted agriculture,  established  markets,  preserved  the 
peace,  administered  justice  strictly  and  enforced  the  laws. 


430  End  of  the  Ancient  Period 

By  intermarriages  and  treaties  he  tried  to  maintain  peace 
between  all  the  neighboring  German  kingdoms,  that  they 
might  not  mutually  destroy  each  other."  *    Nominally  a 
subject  of  the  emperor,  he  was  in  reality  sole  lord  of  Italy, 
influence  of       5OO.  It  must  not  be  thought  that  these  waves  of  bar- 
invaders      barian   invasion   completely   shattered   the   structure   of 
Roman  politics  and  society.     Such  attacks  on  the  borders 
had  been  going  on  for  centuries.     Multitudes  of  Germans 
had  already  been  settled  in  the  provinces.     The  armies 
were  almost  entirely  made  up  of  them.     They  were  found 
1  in  numbers  in  the  offices  of  the  imperial  administration 

and  in  close  touch  with  the  court  of  the  emperor.  Not 
only  had  the  splendor  and  the  strength  of  the  Empire,  its 
civilization  and  its  wealth,  attracted  them,  but  they  had 
been  deeply  influenced  by  it.  Many  of  them  had  been 
converted  to  Christianity.  We  can,  therefore,  understand 
the  famous  saying  of  one  Gothic  chieftain,  that  once,  in 
his  youth,  he  had  the  ambition  to  overthrow  the  Roman 
power,  but  now  his  highest  ambition  was  to  sustain  the 
law  and  order  of  Rome  by  the  swords  of  the  Goths.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  moment  these  invaders  reached  their  goal, 
they  fell  into  the  ways  of  Rome.  They  came  not  to  de- 
stroy, but  to  enter  into  the  Roman  heritage.  They  were 
proud  to  be  made  the  bulwark  and  support  of  its  civiliza- 
tion and  even  of  its  throne.  Thus,  it  was  not  long  before 
the  superior  culture,  the  organizing  and  civilizing  power  of 
old  Rome,  worked  them  over  and  they  settled  down  to 
maintain  the  most  substantial  parts  of  the  imperial  struct- 
ure. This  appears  most  clearly  in  their  laws,  which  were 
gathered  up  into  codes  that  show  the  deep  influence  of 
Roman  law. 

*  Thatcher  and  Schwill.  A  General  History  of  Europe,  p.  27. 


Revival  under  Justinian  431 

501.  With  the  passing  of  the  fifth  century,  the  Empire,  The 
sorely  smitten  in  the  storms  of  barbarian  invasion,  raised  ££jj£ 
its  head  and  asserted  its  ancient  authority  over  the  Roman 
world.     A  series  of  able  rulers  in  the  east  prepared  the 
way  for  the  brilliant  and  vigorous  reign  of  JUSTINIAN  (A.D. 
527-565).     Under  him  the  imperial  armies  were  again  vie-  Justinian, 
torious,  and  territories  lost  for  a  time  were  again  united 
to  the  Empire.    He  himself  was  a  Slav,  one  of  that  sturdy 
people  of  Indo-European  stock  which  followed  in  the  track 
of  the  Germans  and  occupied  the  seats  on  the  Elbe  and  Military 
the  Danube  abandoned  by  them  in  their  westward  move-  ££&.*' 
ment.     His  able  generals  were  Belisarius,  a  Thracian, 
and  Narses,  an  Armenian;    under  their  skilful  adminis- 
tration and  admirable  generalship,  the  army  was  reorgan- 
ized and  led  out  successfully  to  recover  lost  territory.     In 
A.D.  534  Africa  was  won  back  from  the  Vandals.       In 
553,  after  a  long  and  fiercely  contested  struggle,  Italy  was 
rescued  from  the  Ostrogoths.     The  Visigoths  were  de- 
prived of  parts  of  Spain.     The  German  tribes  on  the  Dan- 
ube, as  well  as  the  Avars,  who  were  related  to  the  Huns, 
were  kept  in  check.     The  Persians  in  the  east  were  less 
successfully  resisted. 

502.  The  achievements  of  Justinian  in  more  peaceful  Peaceful 
spheres  were  equally  splendid.     He  was  occupied  with  Vlct< 
building,    with   law  and  theology,   with  commerce  and 
manufactures,  as  well  as  with  war.    In  architecture  and 
painting  he  is  renowned  for  the  wonderful  church  of  St. 
Sophia  in  Constantinople  and  for  the  establishment  of 
standards  of  art,  called  Byzantine,  which  endured  for  cen- 
turies.   In  law,  he  is  immortalized  in  the  Code  which  bears 
his  name.     To  do  away  with  the  inconsistencies  and  con- 
tradictions which  existed  among  the  laws  of  the  Empire,  he 


432  End  of  the  Ancient  Period 

The  code      appointed  a  commission  with  Tribonian  at  its  head  to  col' 
tinian"        ^ec^»  harmonize  and  arrange  them.     The  result  was  the  fa- 
mous Code  of  Justinian.    "  Besides  the  laws,  the  opinions, 
explanations  and  decisions  of  famous  judges  were  col- 
lected.   As  in  the  practice  of  law  to-day,  much  regard  was 
had   for   precedent  and  decisions  of  similar  cases,  and 
these  were  brought  together  from  all  quarters  in  a  collec- 
tion called  the  Pandects.     For  the  use  of  the  law  students, 
a  treatise  on  the  general  principles  of  Roman  law  was  pre- 
pared, which  was  called  the  Institutes.     Justinian  care- 
fully kept  the  laws  which  he  himself  promulgated,  and 
afterward  published  them  under  the  title  of  Novelise."  * 
The  con-         503.  Thus  once  more,  under  the  guidance  of  Justinian, 
fluence^f"     tne  Roman  Empire  proved  itself  a  power  in  the  earth.  And 
the  though  its  newly  recovered  provinces  were  soon  lost,  it 

long  continued  on  its  way  a  light  and  a  fruitful  source  of 
culture  to  the  world.  The  wisdom  of  Constantine's  choice 
of  New  Rome  for  its  capital  was  proved.  Behind  its  im- 
pregnable walls,  the  city  was  able  to  bid  defiance  to  bar- 
barian assailants  and  to  send  forth  again  and  again  its 
centred  in  armies  to  regain  its  lost  territories.  Its  unrivalled  commer- 
nopietant  c^  advantages  drew  irresistibly  the  trade  of  the  world, 
and  riches  continued  to  flow  into  it,  while  learning  and 
culture  found  refuge  and  encouragement  within  its  bul- 
warks. When  the  west  succumbed  to  barbarian  invasions 
and  within  its  borders  Roman  civilization  faded  out  and 
disappeared,  it  was  revived  and  renewed  by  the  influences 
which  went  forth  from  the  eastern  capital.  Its  citizens 
were  alert  and  progressive,  combining  the  gifts  of  Greek 
and  Roman;  its  palaces  were  many  and  magnificent. 
Above  all,  it  was  the  centre  of  a  Christian  life  and  thought, 

*  Thatcher  and  Schwill,  A  General  History  of  Europe,  p.  36. 


Decay  of  Roman  Vigor  433 

which  transformed  the  hordes  of  eastern  and  northern 
barbarians  that  settled  on  its  borders.  A  sense  of  nation- 
ality was  aroused  among  the  motley  populations  that  fell 
under  its  spell;  Byzantine  imperialism,  by  infusing  ancient 
Graeco- Oriental  forms  with  the  Christian  spirit,  brought 
about  the  long-deferred  realization  of  the  policy  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  (§  271).  The  world,  east  and  west,  owes 
much  to  the  Constantinople  of  Justinian  and  his  succes- 
sors. 

504.  The  revival  of  imperial  vigor  was  only  transient. 
Under  the  successors  of  Justinian  the  state  began  again  to 
decline.  One  cause  of  this  was  internal — public  spirit  and 
patriotism  could  not  be  maintained.  The  complicated  ad-  imperial 
ministrative  system  of  Diocletian,  while  it  preserved  the 
Empire  as  a  structure,  sapped  its  inner  life.  The  cost  of 
maintaining  so  great  a  body  of  officials  was  an  enormous 
drain.  Taxation  grew  by  leaps  and  bounds  accompanied 
by  scarcity  of  money,  increase  of  poverty  and  decline  of 
population.  Class  distinctions  still  further  weakened  the 
effectiveness  of  the  body  politic.  The  senatorial  class  was 
rich  and  powerful  and  was  exempted  from  many  civic  bur- 
dens. These  fell  largely  on  the  next  lower  class,  called  the 
Curials  or  Decurions.  All  who  possessed  at  least  twenty- 
five  acres  of  land  were  included  in  this  class.  They  were 
responsible  for  local  government  and  the  collection  of 
taxes,  deficiencies  in  which  they  must  make  up  out  of  their 
own  private  fortunes.  These  obligations  were  hereditary;  Ruin  of 
a  son  of  a  curial  entered  the  order  at  the  age  of  eighteen;  J[£enik 
severe  laws  were  passed  to  prevent  any  from  avoiding 
the  civic  burdens,  which  often  proved  their  ruin.  As  the 
result  of  wars  and  taxation  many  small  freeholders  lost 
their  property  and  became  coloni  (§  481)  on  the  estates 


434  End  of  the  Ancient  Period 

of  the  nobles,  to  be  sold  with  the  land  to  which  they  be- 
longed. The  artisans  formed  a  separate  class  to  which  all 
members  were  likewise  perpetually  bound.  The  result  of 
all  these  arrangements  was  that  the  imperial  machine  with 
its  rigid  system  and  universal  sweep  was  crushing  the  life 
out  of  the  middle  classes,  destroying  all  civic  patriotism 
and  individual  ambition,  in  the  praiseworthy  endeavor  to 
hold  the  state  together. 

505.  But  there  was  also  an  external  cause  of  the  decline 
of  the  Empire  in  the  east.  A  new  religion  appeared  in 
the  Orient  and  was  spread  by  force  of  arms  throughout  the 
eastern  world.  This  was  Mohammedanism. 

Moham-  506.  In  far  Arabia,  on  the  southwestern  side,  near  the 
Red  sea,  lay  the  city  of  Mecca,  a  sacred  shrine  of  Arabian 
heathenism  and  a  centre  of  trade  for  the  wandering  tribes 
of  the  desert.  Here,  about  A.D.  570,  was  born,  in  poverty 
but  of  a  noble  family,  Mohammed,  who  was  to  be  the 
founder  of  a  religious  and  a  political  power  of  wide  extent 
and  influence.  As  he  grew  up  and  came  somewhat  in 
contact  with  the  world  without,  he  became  deeply  im- 
pressed with  the  idolatry  and  wicked  practices  of  his  peo- 
AndHis  pie.  Of  a  highly  sensitive  nature,  perhaps  in  early  life  a 
New  Faith.  ^re^  ^Q  SQmt  nervous  disease,  he  felt  himself  in  a  vision 
called  to  be  the  prophet  of  Allah,  the  supreme  god  of  the 
Arabs.  After  long  trial  and  struggle  the  Arabs  were  won 
for  his  doctrine.  Mohammed  founded  a  church,  and 
his  utterances,  which  Allah  commissioned  him  to  speak, 
were  gathered  into  a  sacred  book,  the  Quran,  the  law  and 
gospel  of  his  followers.  He  claimed  to  be  the  supreme 
prophet  of  God  and,  therefore,  all  men  were  called  upon 
to  obey  his  word.  To  the  emperor  and  to  the  Persian  king 
he  sent  his  messengers  calling  for  submission  to  God  and 


Mohammedans  and  Franks  435 

his  prophet.  When  he  died  (A.D.  632),  his  followers  were 
ready  to  go  forth  to  the  conquest  of  the  world  on  behalf  of 
the  true  faith. 

507.  A  vigorous  emperor,  HERACLIUS,  was  on  the  throne 
and  had  brought  a  war  with  the  Persians  to  a  victorious 

end.     But  the  fanaticism  of  the  Mohammedans  carried  spread  of 
all  before  it.     Syria  and  Egypt  were  lost.    A  Moham-  *edarims 
medan  capital  was  established  at  Damascus,  from  which 
the  successors  of  the  prophet,  called  Caliphs,  ruled  over  a 
wide  empire  that  included  Persia,  Arabia,  Syria  and  Egypt. 
They  entered  Asia  Minor,  and  in  A.D.  668  appeared  be- 
fore the  walls  of  Constantinople.    They  were  repulsed, 
but  the  Empire  had  forever  lost  its  eastern  provinces. 

508.  Filled  with  missionary  zeal  and  warlike  fury  the 
Mohammedans    pressed    westward    along   the    northern 
coast  of  Africa  and  added  it  to  their  empire.    Thence 
they  crossed  over  into  Spain,  and  in  A.D.  711  overthrew 
the  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths  (§  497).     From  there  they 
advanced  into  Gaul.     It  seemed  as  though  the  western 
Roman  world,  like  the  eastern,  was  to  fall  into  their  power. 
But  the  force  that  held  them  in  check  had  been  growing 
strong  during  these  same  centuries  on  Gallic  soil.    This 
was  the  Kingdom  of  the  Franks,  to  the  history  of  which 
we  now  turn. 

509.  The  Franks  had  advanced  but  slowly  into  the  The 
Empire,  appearing  first  on  the  lower  Rhine.    Thus  they  F 
kept  in  touch  with  their  German  brethren  and  renewed 
their  native  vigor  by  constant  additions  from  the  old  stock. 

In  A.D.  481  a  petty  tribal  king,  Clovis,  united  the  Frank- 
ish  tribes  under  his  authority,  defeated  a  Roman  governor 
and  took  possession  of  upper  Gaul.     From  here  he  pushed  Kingdom 
eastward  and  conquered  the  Alamanni.     Still  unsatisfied, 


436  End  of  the  Ancient  Period 

he  drove  the  Visigoths  from  southern  Gaul  into  Spain  and 
overcame  the  Burgundians  to  the  southeast.  At  his  death, 
in  A.D.  511,  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks  stretched  from  the 
Pyrenees  and  the  ocean  to  beyond  the  Rhine.  His  sons 
extended  the  kingdom  eastward  in  Germany  to  a  point 
beyond  the  farthest  conquests  of  the  Romans.  In  time 
this  territory  was  divided  up  between  members  of  the  royal 
house,  and  two  kingdoms  appeared,  Austrasia  in  the  east 
and  Neustria  in  the  west. 

510.  The  Prankish  nobility,  like  many  ancient  aristocra- 
cies in  states  just  emerging  from  the  tribal  conditions 
(§  106),  succeeded  in  course  of  time  in  gaining  more  and 
Rise  of        more  power  over  the  king.     The  way  in  which  this  took 
^*lte         place,  however,  was  peculiar.     An  important  officer  of 
Palace.        the  royal  household  was  the  major  domus,  or  "mayor  of 
the  palace,"  through  whom  admission  to  the  king's  pres- 
ence was  secured.     The  noble  families  were  able  to  put 
in  this  position  men  from  their  own  body  and  thus  to  con- 
trol the  king.     The  major  domus  possessed  royal  authority 
though  he  did  not  have  the  royal  name.     The  kings  were 
mere  figureheads,  "  do-nothing-kings." 

5x1.  A  contemporary  thus  describes  them.  "Nothing  was  left  to 
the  king  except  the  kingly  name;  with  long  hair  and  flowing  beard, 
he  sat  on  the  throne  to  receive  envoys  from  all  quarters,  but  it  was 
only  to  give  them  the  answers  which  he  was  bidden  to  give.  His 
kingly  title  was  an  empty  shadow,  and  the  allowance  for  his  support 
depended  on  the  pleasure  of  the  mayor  of  the  palace.  The  king 
possessed  nothing  of  his  own  but  one  poor  farm  with  a  house  on  it, 
and  a  scanty  number  of  attendants,  to  pay  him  necessary  service  and 
respect.  He  went  abroad  in  a  wagon  drawn  by  oxen,  and  guided 
by  a  herdsman  in  the  country  fashion;  thus  was  he  brought  to  the 
palace  or  to  the  annual  assemblies  of  the  people  for  the  affairs  of  the 
realm;  thus  he  went  home  again.  But  the  government  of  the  king- 


Progress  of  the  Church  437 

dom,  and  all  business,  foreign  or  domestic,  were  in  the  hands  of  the 
mayors  of  the  palace." 

512.  One  of  the  mayors  of  the  palace  of  the  Austrasian 
Kingdom,  Pippin  by  name,  conquered  Neustria  and  Bur- 
gundy, and,  when  he  died,  left  the  domains  thus  gained  to  Charles 
his  son,  Charles  Martel  (A.D.  714),  his  successor  in  the  MarteL 
mayoral  office.     The  new  ruler  confronted  the  advancing 
Mohammedans  and  defeated  them  near  Tours  in  A.D.  732. 
They  retreated  into  Spain,  and,  owing  to  disturbances  in  the  Battle  of 
Mohammedan  empire,  no  further  attempt  was  made  to  Tour*' 
extend  their  power  beyond  the  Pyrenees.    The  possible 

fate  of  western  Christendom,  if  the  victory  had  been 
gained  by  the  Mohammedans,  has  placed  the  battle  of 
Tours  among  the  world's  decisive  battles. 

513.  During  these  centuries,  which  had  seen  the  barba-  Growth 
rian  deluge,  the  establishment  of  barbarian  kingdoms,  the  Jfhjjjh 
revival  of  the  Empire  and  the  rise  of  Mohammedanism, 

one  imperial  institution,  the  Christian  Church,  had  suffered 
the  least  and  perhaps  had  gained  the  most.     Since  its 
recognition  as  the  religion  of  the  state,  it  had  advanced 
rapidly.     Its  ministers  became  imperial  officials  and  its 
religious  enactments  in  its  great  councils  had  imperial 
authority.    Among  its  leaders  were  men  of  learning  and  Leader* 
eloquence,  whoso  writings  have  deeply  affected  the  history 
of  Christian  thought.     John  Chrysostom    ("he   of  the  chrysot- 
golden  mouth")  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  preachers  tom" 
of  his  age  (A.D.  347-407).    As  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, he  was  the  idol  of  the  people  for  his  eloquence  and 
the  aversion  of  the  court  for  his  fearless  denunciation  of 
vice  and  hypocrisy.     He  was  twice  banished  by  the  em- 
peror.    Jerome  (about  A.D.  346-420)  was  the  most  learned 
man  of  his  time.      His  services  to  the  Church  are  twofold: 


438  End  of  the  Ancient  Period 

(i)  He  translated  the  Bible  into  Latin  so  successfully,  that 
with  some  modifications  his  translation,  called  the  Vul- 
gate,* remained  the  accepted  version  of  the  Latin  Church. 
Monasti-      (2)    He    aided    powerfully    the    "monastic"    movement, 
cism.  Very  early  in  the  history  of  Christianity  its  followers,  com- 

ing into  contact  with  the  Roman  world  that  in  their  eyes 
was  evil  and  that  also  persecuted  them,  were  moved  to  flee 
from  it,  to  hide  in  the  deserts  or  other  solitary  places,  that 
thus  they  might  escape  from  temptations  and  trials,  and 
be  enabled  to  live  a  worthier  life.  The  men  who  followed 
this  impulse  were  called  "ascetics."  When  Christianity 
became  the  religion  of  the  Empire,  the  reason  for  this 
mode  of  life  changed  somewhat.  Now  it  was  thought  to 
be  the  one  means  of  obtaining  a  higher  kind  of  goodness; 
it  was  a  method  of  reaching  perfection  of  character.  Soon 
such  persons,  who  had  fled  from  the  world,  found  that  they 
could  better  gain  these  ends  by  living  together  in  secluded 
communities.  Men  and  women  had  separate  establish- 
ments; they  were  called  "monks"  and  "nuns"  respec- 
tively.f  All  the  church  leaders  praised  and  encouraged 
this  mode  of  life  and  it  soon  became  immensely  popular. 
Jerome  fervently  preached  and  rigorously  practised  the 
monastic  life  and  succeeded  in  inducing  many  wealthy 
and  noble  women  to  take  it  up.  Such  persons  refused 
to  marry,  devoted  their  wealth  to  charity,  ate  coarse  and 
scanty  food  and  dressed  in  the  simplest  way.  Jerome 
went  so  far  as  to  denounce  the  study  of  heathen  lit- 
erature, even  the  noblest  works  of  antiquity.  The  great- 
Augustine,  est  of  the  Christian  leaders  of  the  age  was  Augustine, 

*  Latin,  Vulgata,  i.e.,  "in  common  use." 

f  The  words  "monk,"  "monastery"  and  "monasticism"  come  from 
the  Greek  word  monos,  meaning  "alone,"  "separate/ 


The  Bishop  of  Rome  439 

bishop  of  Hippo  in  Africa  (A.D.  354-430).  Trained  in 
the  best  culture  of  the  day,  he  devoted  his  powerful  mind 
to  the  defence  and  upbuilding  of  orthodox  Christianity. 
He  wrote  innumerable  books,  the  greatest  of  which  was 
The  City  of  God.  This  book  was  inspired  by  the  capture 
of  Rome  by  Alaric  (§497),  and  compared  the  splendid 
city  of  the  Empire,  now  fallen,  with  the  true  spiritual  capi- 
tal of  mankind,  the  Christian  Church.  Its  eloquence  and 
its  logic,  its  splendid  survey  of  the  past,  and  its  prophetic 
insight  into  the  future  have  given  this  work  a  place  among 
the  classics  of  all  time. 

514.  In  the  general  progress  of  the  church  especial  increased 
prominence  was  secured  to  the  church  and  bishop  of  Rome.  ^^^ 
In  the  troubles  that  fell  upon  Italy  this  church  was  fore-  Roman 

-   „,     .     .       .  Church. 

most  in  asserting  the  power  of  Christianity  and  in  repre- 
senting its  spirit.     Its  bishops  were  the  friends  and  helpers 
of  the  oppressed,  the  fearless  opponents  of  injustice  and 
cruelty.     They  also  secured  recognition  for  their  own 
claims   to   superior  position   among   Christian  churches 
(§  483).     Leo  I,  the  Great  (A.D.  440-461),  obtained  an  im-  Leo  the 
perial  decree  (A.D.  445)  commanding  all  the  bishops  of  the  G 
west  to  recognize  the  supreme  headship  of  the  Roman 
bishop  and  to  receive  his  word  as  law.     It  is  true  that  a  spiritual 
little  later  a  church  council  declared  that  the  bishop  of  Authority- 
Constantinople  was  the  equal  of  the  Roman  and  that  both 
were  to  be  superior  to  all  others.     But,  as  the  western 
church,  now  slowly  separating  from  the  eastern,  refused  to 
accept  this  ruling,  the  Roman  supremacy  was  established. 
It  has  been  well  said  that  with  Leo  the  history  of  the 
papacy  began.   The  Roman  bishop  became  "pope "  of  the 
Church  in  the  west  with  the  claim  to  be  the  head  of  all 
Christendom.     Likewise,  as  an  imperial  official,  he  had 


440  End  of  the  Ancient  Period 

Temporal  authority  over  the  territory  about  Rome  and  this  he  ex- 
Power.  ercised  to  its  fullest  extent  during  the  dark  years  of  the  fifth 
century.  He  "watched  over  the  election  of  the  city  offi- 
cials and  directed  in  what  manner  the  public  money 
should  be  spent.  He  had  to  manage  and  defend  the  great 
tracts  of  land  in  different  parts  of  Italy  which,  from  time 
to  time,  had'  been  given  to  the  bishopric  of  Rome.  He 
negotiated  with  the  Germans  and  even  directed  the  gen- 
erals sent  against  them."  *  Thus,  as  the  Empire  declined, 
his  power  grew  in  two  directions:  (i)  in  spiritual  headship 
over  western  Christendom;  (2)  in  worldly,  or  temporal, 
authority  over  parts  of  the  Empire. 

515.  As  leader  of  western   Christendom    the    papacy 
entered  upon  the  most  important  task  of  winning  the  bar- 
conversion    barians  for  the  true  faith.     Some  of  these  peoples  were 
Barbarians,  already  Christians,  although  in  the  Arian  form  (§  494). 

Others  were   still  pagan.      In   the   work  of  conversion 
the   popes  employed   the   monks,  whose  freedom  from 
family  ties  and  zeal  for  the  Gospel  made  them  admir- 
able instruments  for  this  purpose.     The  leading  spirit 
Gregory       in  this  movement  was  Pope  Gregory  I  (A.D.  590-604), 
Great.         to  wnom  is  due  the  sending  of  a  missionary  monk  to  Eng- 
land.    Its  result  was  not  merely  the  conversion  of  the 
Angles  and  Saxons  who  had  entered  and  occupied  the 
land,  but  their  acceptance  of  the  primacy  of  the  pope. 
Boniface.      Another   famous  missionary  whom  the   popes  sent  out 
was  Boniface  (A.D.  718),  through  whose  labors  the  Ger- 
mans   across  the  Rhine  were    converted  and  churches 
organized  among  them. 

516.  The  Franks,  however,  were  to  prove  the   most 
potent  allies  of  the  popes  in  their  progress  toward  head- 

*  Robinson,  History  of  Western  Europe,  p.  52, 


The  Pope  and  the  Franks     441 

ship  in  the  west.  Clovis  embraced  orthodox  Christianity 
on  the  occasion  of  his  victory  over  the  Alamanni  (§  509), 
and  ranged  his  people  on  the  side  of  the  papacy.  Christi- 
anity flourished  exceedingly  among  them,  although  the 
purity  of  life  among  the  priests  and  bishops  was  not  on  a 
par  with  that  of  the  doctrine.  When,  however,  Boniface, 
having  completed  his  labors  among  the  Germans,  sought 
to  reform  the  Frankish  church,  he  found  a  helper  in 
Charles  Martel.  The  decisive  step  was  taken  in  A.D.  748, 
when  the  bishops  of  Gaul  agreed  to  uphold  the  ortho- 
dox faith  and  obey  the  commands  of  the  pope  at  Rome. 
Thus  the  strongest  force  in  the  new  world  was  won  for 
Christ  and  the  Roman  Church.  Henceforth  the  history  Acceptance 
of  the  Franks  and  the  papacy  were  inseparably  connected,  supremacy. 

When  Charles  Martel  died,  his  mayorial  power  was 
handed  on  to  his  two  sons,  Karloman  and  Pippin.  The 
former  soon  retired  to  a  monastery,  leaving  Pippin  alone 
in  the  office.  "Deeming  that  the  time  was  now  ripe, 
Pippin  laid  his  plans  for  obtaining  the  royal  title.  He  sent 
an  embassy  to  Rome  to  ask  Pope  Zacharias  who  should  be 
king:  the  one  who  had  the  title  without  the  power,  or  the 
one  who  had  the  power  without  the  title.  The  pope,  who 
was  looking  abroad  for  an  ally,  replied  that  it  seemed  to 
him  that  the  one  who  had  the  power  should  also  be  king; 
and  acting  on  this,  Pippin  called  an  assembly  of  his  nobles  wPPin. 
at  Soissons  (A.D.  751),  deposed  the  last  phantom  king  * 
of  the  older  line,  and  was  himself  elected  and  anointed 
king."  * 

517.  This  alliance  between  Roman  pope  and  Frankish  The 
king  soon  had  practical  results.    The  pope  found  his 
temporal  authority  (§  514)  threatened  by  the  Lombards. 

*  Thatcher  and  Schwill,  A  General  History  of  Europe,  p.  47- 


King  of 
the  Franks 


Lombards. 


442 


End  of  the  Ancient  Period 


Accession 
of  Charle- 
magne. 


This  people  had  entered  Italy  soon  after  the  Ostro- 
goths had  been  overcome  by  the  Emperor  Justinian.  By 
A.D.  568  they  were  in  possession  of  north  Italy  with  their 
capital  at  Pavia.  Then,  in  separate  bands,  they  spread 
southward,  settling  here  and  there,  conquering  large  parts ; 
only  Ravenna,  the  seat  of  the  emperor's  representative, 
the  Exarch,  and  the  district  about  Rome  were  able  to 
maintain  themselves.  When,  however,  the  Lombards 
united  under  a  king,  the  pope  found  himself  hard  pressed. 
He  appealed  to  his  overlord  and  natural  protector,  the 
Emperor  Leo,  in  the  east.  But  the  latter  had  introduced  a 
violent  controversy  into  his  realm  by  commanding  the 
removal  from  Christian  churches  of  all  images  as  tending 
to  encourage  idolatry.  His  violence  in  enforcing  this 
command  gained  him  the  name  of  Iconoclast  ("Image- 
breaker").  The  pope  refused  to  obey  the  decree  and  was 
supported  by  the  western  churches.  Thus  the  fellowship 
between  the  two  was  broken  off  and  no  help  came  from 
the  east.  The  pope  turned  to  the  west  and  appealed  to 
Pippin  to  deliver  him.  "Pippin  made  two  campaigns 
into  Italy  and  compelled  the  Lombards  to  cede  to  the  pope 
a  strip  of  territory  which  lay  to  the  south  of  them  (A.D.  755). 
This  marks  the  beginning  of  the  temporal  sovereignty  of 
the  pope.  He  was  freed  from  the  eastern  emperor,  and 
recognized  as  the  political  as  well  as  the  ecclesiastical  ruler 
of  Rome  and  its  surrounding  territory,  under  the  over- 
lordship  of  Pippin,  who  had  the  title  of  Patricius."  *  The 
Lombards  were  made  tributary  to  the  Frankish  king. 

518.  His  two  sons,  Karloman  and  Karl,  succeeded  to 
the  kingdom  on  Pippin's  death  (A.D.  768).  The  former's 
early  death  left  Karl  sole  king.  He  is  the  first  prominent 

*  Thatcher  and  Schwill,  A  General  History  of  Europe,  p.  130. 


Charlemagne  443 

figure  of  the  times  of  whom  we  know  something  distinct 
and  detailed.  The  reason  for  this  is  not  far  to  seek.  With 
him  the  old  world  passed  away  and  the  new  world  stepped 
into  its  place.  To  later  ages  he  was  Karl  the  Great,  Caro- 
lus  Magnus,  whence  the  common  form,  Charlemagne. 
His  personal  appearance  is  described  to  us  by  his  contem- 
poraries. 

519-  We  copy  the  admirable  condensation  of  this  description  made 
by  Robinson  :  "He  was  tall  and  stoutly  built  :  his  face  was  round, 
his  eyes  were  large  and  keen,  his  nose  somewhat  above  the  common 
size,  his  expression  bright  and  cheerful.  Whether  he  stood  or  sat,  his 
form  was  full  of  dignity;  for  the  good  proportion  and  grace  of  his 
body  prevented  the  observer  from  noticing  that  his  neck  was  rather 
short  and  his  person  somewhat  too  stout.  .  .  .  His  step  was  firm 
and  his  aspect  manly;  his  voice  was  clear  but  rather  weak  for  so 
large  a  body.  He  was  active  in  all  bodily  exercises,  delighted  in 
riding  and  hunting,  and  was  an  expert  swimmer.  His  excellent 
health  and  his  physical  alertness  and  endurance  can  alone  explain 
the  astonishing  swiftness  with  which  he  moved  about  his  vast  realm 
and  conducted  innumerable  campaigns  in  widely  distant  regions  in 
startlingly  rapid  succession." 

520.  With  the  abundant  activity  of  Charlemagne  the 
student  of  ancient  history  does  not  need  to  acquaint  him-   the  Pope 
self.     The  king's  relations  to  Italy  and  the  pope  alone 
require  attention.    The  troubles  of  the  papacy  with  the 
Lombards  continued  in  his  time,  until,  on  the  appeal  of 
the  pope,   he  entered  Italy,   conquered  the  Lombards, 
made  himself  their  king  (A.D.  774),  and  restored  to  the  Crowned 
pope  his  territories.     When  a  party  in  Rome  sought  to  E^"or 
deprive  Pope  Leo  III  of  his  temporal  authority  and  drove 
him  from  the  city,  he  again  appealed  to  Charlemagne, 
who  reinstated  him.    A  service  of  thanksgiving  was  held 
in  St.  Peter's  Church  on  Christmas  Day,  A.D.  800,  at  which 


444  End  of  the  Ancient  Period 

Charlemagne  was  present.  While  the  king  was  kneeling 
before  the  altar,  the  pope  placed  upon  his  head  the  im- 
perial crown  and  hailed  him  "  Emperor  of  the  Romans." 

521.  A  Prankish  chronicle  gives  the  following  reasons 
for  this  act  which  seems  to  have  taken  Charlemagne  by 
surprise. 

"The  name  of  Emperor  had  ceased  among  the  Greeks,  for  they 
were  enduring  the  reign  of  a  woman  [Irene],  wherefore  it  seemed 
good  both  to  Leo,  the  apostolic  pope,  and  to  the  holy  fathers  [the 
bishops]  who  were  in  council  with  him,  and  to  all  Christian  men, 
that  they  should  name  Charles,  king  of  the  Franks,  as  Emperor. 
For  he  held  Rome  itself,  where  the  ancient  Caesars  had  always  dwelt, 
in  addition  to  all  his  other  possessions  in  Italy,  Gaul  and  Germany. 
Wherefore,  as  God  had  granted  him  all  these  dominions,  it  seemed 
just  to  all  that  he  should  take  the  title  of  Emperor,  too,  when  it 
was  offered  to  him  at  the  wish  of  all  Christendom." 

what  This  522.  This  assumption  of  the  imperial  title  by  Charle- 
ans'  magne  has  two  aspects,  (i)  In  one  sense  it  is  only  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  past.  The  years  of  confusion  in  the  west 
were  over  and  a  well-ordered  state  came  into  existence, 

Revival.  embracing  in  its  unity  the  old  imperial  provinces,  and 
ruled  in  the  name  of  Rome,  a  name  hallowed  by  centuries 
of  splendid  history.  So  it  was  looked  upon  at  the  time. 
Charlemagne  was  regarded  as  a  successor  of  the  line  of 
eastern  Emperors.*  But  (2)  in  a  more  important  sense  it 
was  entirely  new.  A  new  race,  a  barbarian  people,  up- 
held the  imperial  throne  and  were  represented  in  its  oc- 
cupant. The  old  Roman  blood  and  institutions  were 
swallowed  up  in  the  Teutonic.  Even  more  significant  is 

A  New  Era.  the  union  of  this  new  imperial  people  with  the  Christian 

*  The  Empress  Irene  was  on  the  throne,  and  it  was  regarded  as  a 
disgrace  that  the  imperial  seat  should  be  occupied  by  a  woman. 


A  New  Era  445 

Church.  Moreover,  in  the  east  the  Semitic  Arabs,  inspired 
with  zeal  for  a  new  faith,  had  forced  back  almost  to  the 
walls  of  Constantinople  the  eastern  Empire,  now  shorn 
of  its  ancient  strength.  Such  a  breaking  up  of  the  past 
institutions  and  such  a  combination  of  new  historical 
forces  introduces  us  to  a  new  order  and  indicates  that  the 
Ancient  World  has  passed  away  and  another  world  is 
rising  on  its  ruins. 

OUTLINE  FOR  REVIEW 
III.  THE  EMPIRE  OF  ROME 

I.  The  Making  of  Rome.  2.  Rome's  Western  Empire.  3.  Rome's 
Eastern  Empire. 

4.  ROME'S  WOKLD-EMPIRE. 

[  (i)  The  world-empire  under  the  Principate — (2)  The  world- 
empire  under  the  Despotism] — (3)  The  Breaking  up  of  the  World- 
empire  and  the  End  of  the  Ancient  Period :  Four  centuries  of  con- 
fusion— the  barbarian  deluge — Alaric  and  Visigoths — Gaiseric 
and  Vandals— Attila  and  Huns— fall  of  Western  Empire — Theo- 
doric  and  Ostrogoths — Rome  transforms  the  barbarians — Imperial 
revival  under  Justinian — his  work — internal  decay  of  the  Empire 
— external  attack — Mohammedanism — early  history  of  the  Franks 
— battle  of  Tours— growth  of  the  Church— its  great  leaders — 
monasticism  —  advance  of  the  Church  of  Rome  —  conversion  of 
barbarians  —  Franks  accept  Roman  Christianity  —  Charlemagne 
crowned  by  the  Pope — its  significance — the  end  of  the  ancient 
world. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES.  1.  What  do  Alaric,  Attila,  Gaiseric, 
Theodoric,  Clovis  stand  for?  2.  Why  are  the  following  im- 
portant: Catalaunian  Fields,  Code  of  Justinian,  Exarch, Tours? 
3.  What  has  rendered  the  following  famous:  Jerome,  Charles 
Martel,  Gregory,  Justinian,  Stilicho,  Augustine?  4.  What  is 
the  date  of  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire,  of  the  death  of 
Mohammed,  of  the  Battle  of  Tours,  of  the  crowning  of  Charle- 
magne? 

COMPARATIVE  STUDIES.  1.  Compare  Charlemagne  and  Con. 
stantine.  2.  Compare  the  origin  and  growth  of  Mohamme- 


446  End  of  the  Ancient  Period 

danism  and  of  Christianity.  3.  In  what  was  the  relation  of  the 
Barbarians  to  the  Empire  like  that  of  Philip  of  Macedon  to 
the  Greeks  (§§  245,  251,  252)?  4.  Compare  the  rise  of  the 
Franks  with  the  rise  of  the  Roman  state  (see  Wolf  son,  p.  488). 

TOPICS  FOR  READING  AND  ORAL  REPORT.  1.  The 
Germans  and  Their  Culture.  Laing,  pp.  401-409  (source);  Seig- 
nobos,  pp.  440,  441;  West,  pp.  458-463;  Botsford,  pp.  293-296. 
2.  The  Visigoths  and  Alaric.  Seignobos,  pp.  421-425,  442;  Gib- 
bon, pp.  226-238;  Botsford,  pp.  297-303.  3 ,  The  Ostrogoths  and 
Theodoric.  Botsford,  pp.  312-315;  Seignobos,  pp.  444-446. 
4.  The  Vandals  and  Gaiseric.  Botsford,  pp.  303-306;  Seignobos, 
pp.  429,  442.  5.  The  Conquest  of  Britain.  West,  pp.  483-485; 
Botsford,  pp.  321-322.  6.  The  Huns  and  Attila.  Merivale, 
pp.  648-651;  Seignobos,  pp. 427-429;  Gibbon,  pp.  200-203,251- 
263.  7.  The  Lombards.  Wolfson,  pp.  484-486;  Gibbon,  pp. 
378-383;  Botsford,  pp.  319-321;  Seignobos,  pp.  446-447. 
8.  Theodoric.  Gibbon,  ch.  19.  9.  Justinian  and  the  Eastern 
Empire.  Gibbon,  chs.  20—22;  Seignobos,  pp.  449-456.  10. 
The  Decay  of  Society — Causes  and  Course.  Wolfson,  p.  478; 
Seignobos,  pp.  432-438.  11.  The  Fathers  of  the  Church.  Morey, 
p.  324.  12.  Rise  of  the  Roman  Church.  Gibbon,  pp.  383-384; 
Seignobos,  pp.  460-465;  Wolfson,  pp.  490-493;  West,  pp.  505- 
512.  13.  The  Iconoclasts.  Gibbon,  pp.  428-432.  14.  Monas- 
ticism.  Seignobos,  pp.  465-467;  West,  pp.  490-492.  15.  Mo- 
hammed. Gibbon,  pp.  451—465;  Seignobos,  pp.  467-471. 
16.  The  Victories  of  Mohammedanism.  Gibbon,  pp.  465-483; 
Seignobos,  pp.  471-475.  17.  The  Rise  of  the  Franks.  Wolfson, 
pp.  486-487;  Seignobos,  pp.  443-444;  Botsford,  pp.  322-328; 
Gibbon,  pp.  274-277.  18.  Charlemagne.  Seignobos,  pp.  479- 
485;  Botsford,  pp.  328-331;  West,  pp.  513-522. 


GENERAL   REVIEW  OF   PART  III,   DIVISION  3 

44  B.C.-A.D.  800 

TOPICS  FOR  CLASS  DISCUSSION.  1.  Follow  the  different 
steps  in  the  Relation  of  the  Emperor  to  the  Institutions  of  the 
Republic  (§§  425, 426, 436, 442,  446,  449,  466,  478,  479,  484, 485). 
2.  Progress  in  the  Administrative  Organization  of  the  Empire 
(§§  443.  467,  469,  478,  484,  503).  3.  External  Causes  tending 
to  weaken  the  Empire  (§§  429,  468,  476,  480,  497,  500,  505). 


Rome's  World-Empire  447 

4.  Internal  Causes  tending  to  Weaken  the  Empire  (§§  436, 
438,  457.  469,  480,  481,  495,  504).  5.  The  Problem  of  the 
Succession  in  its  various  stages  (§§  438,  446,  466,  477,  478, 
484).  6.  Stages  in  the  Organization  of  Christianity  (§§  461, 
475>  483,  494.  495.  5^.  SM)-  7.  Important  Dates  in  the  His- 
tory of  the  Empire.  8.  A  Chronological  List  of  the  Invasions 
of  the  Barbarians.  9.  Trace  the  gradual  separation  of  the 
Empire  into  an  Eastern  and  a  Western  part  (§§  484,  489,  491, 
493,  494,  497,  498,  503,  514,  516,  517). 

PICTURE  EXERCISES.  1.  With  Plate  XIV  before  you  compare 
the  figures  and  note  differences  of  artistic  and  historical  impor- 
tance. 2.  On  Plates  XV  and  XVI  compare  coins  6  and  8 
with  coins  9  and  14.  What  important  differences  are  seen? 

3.  Compare  coins  1 1  and  13.    Bearing  in  mind  whose  coins  these 
are,  what  historical  conclusions  can  you  draw?    4.  Compare 
Plates  XX  and  XXIV  to  register  the  advance  or  decline  in 
artistic  character.     5.  Why  have  Plates  X  and  XXIV  decided 
differences  in  subject  and  style?    6.  On  Plate  XVIII  study 
head  6;  does  this  style  suit  the  man?     How?     7.  Why  are 
the   illustrations   of   Plate   XXIII    characteristic  of    Rome? 
8.   What  does  Plate  XXI  tell  us  of  Roman  Life  in  the  first 
century  A.D.? 

SUBJECTS  FOR  WRITTEN  PAPERS.  1.  The  City  of  Rome 
under  the  Empire.  Merivale,  ch.  79.  2.  The  Persecutions 
of  the  Christians.  Munro,  pp.  164-176  (sources);  Univ. of  Pa. 
Translations,  Vol.  IV,  No.  i;  Gibbon,  ch.  9;  St-ignobos,  pp. 
366-372.  3.  The  History  of  Roman  Law.  Gibbon,  ch.  23. 

4.  Rome  in  Juvenal's  Time  from  his  Own  Report.    Laing,  pp. 
433-449  (translation).  5.  What  the  German  Gave  to  the  Roman 
and  Received  from  Him.   West,  pp.  486-496.  6.  An  Account  of 
the  Parthian  Kingdom,  its  History  and  Relations  to  Rome. 
Ency.  Britannica,  Art.  Persia,  (the  part  dealing  with  Parthia). 
7.  A  Letter  from  Pliny  to  Tacitus  Describing  His  Own  Life  and 
Activities,  Interests,  Pleasures,  etc.     Laing,  pp.  45^-471  (con- 
tains translations  of  Pliny's  letters);  The  Atlantic,  June,   1886; 
Thomas,  Roman  Life  under  the  Caesars,  ch.  14.     8.  The  Gifts 
of  Rome  to  Human  Civilization.     Morey,  ch.  30.    9.  An  Ac- 
count of  the  Historical  Event  Suggested  by  Plate  XIX. 


APPENDIX  I 

BIBLIOGRAPHY   FOR  ADVANCED  STUDENTS  AND 
TEACHERS 

I.    GENERAL  WORKS 

HELMOLT.  History  o}  the  World.  Vol.  Ill,  Western  Asia  and  Egypt: 
Vol.  IV,  The  Mediterranean  Countries.  Dodd,  Mead  and  Co. 
The  most  recent  and  best  of  the  great  general  histories. 

CUNNINGHAM.  Western  Civilization  in  its  Economic  Aspects:  Ancient 
Times.  Cambridge  Univ.  Press.  Uniquely  valuable  for  its  point 
of  view,  which  is  ordinarily  overlooked.  Covers  with  special  ful- 
ness the  classical  period. 

CLASSICAL  ATLAS.  For  Schools.  Edited  by  G.  B.  Grundy.  London: 
Murray.  Promises  to  be  the  most  artistic  and  accurate  school  atlas 
published. 

SEYFFART.  Dictionary  of  Classical  Antiquity.  Ed.  Nettleship  and 
Sandys.  Macmillan. 

HARPER'S.     Dictionary  of  Classical  Antiquity.     Harper  and  Bros. 

TOZER.  Classical  Geography  (Literature  Primers).  American  Book 
Co. 

II.   THE  EASTERN   EMPIRES 

HARPER.  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Literature.  Appleton.  A  useful 
collection  of  accurate  translations  from  these  ancient  documents. 

Records  of  the  Past.  First  Series,  12  vols.  Second  Series,  6  vols. 
(New  York:  Pott.)  Translations  from  Egyptian  and  Babylonian- 
Assyrian  documents  by  various  hands.  An  excellent  series. 

MASPERO.  History  of  the  Ancient  East.  i.  The  Dawn  oj  Civilization. 
2.  The  Struggle  of  the  Nations.  3.  The  Passing  of  the  Empires. 
3  vols.  Appleton. 

A  most  elaborate  work  by  an  excellent  scholar.     Full  of  illustra- 
tions.    Costly  but  of  great  usefulness  for  school  study. 

McCuRDY.     History,   Prophecy  and  the   Monuments.     3   vols.     Mac- 
millan. An  elaborate  survey  of  the  Oriental  world  from  the  Hebrews 
as  a  centre.     Learned  and  instructive. 
449 


450  Appendix  I 

Encyclopedia  Biblica,  edited  by  Cheyne  and  Black.  4  vols.  Mac- 
millan.  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  edited  by  J.  Hastings.  4  vols. 
Scribners. 

These  latest  Bible    dictionaries   have   elaborate    and   valuable 
articles  and  maps  dealing  with  the  ancient  Oriental  peoples. 

RAWLINSON.  The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World. 
3  vols.  Scribners.  Always  entertaining  and  useful,  but  now 
largely  antiquated  by  the  advance  of  knowledge. 

ROGERS.  History  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria.  2  vols.  Eaton  and 
Mains.  Besides  a  good  historical  survey  the  book  has  an  elaborate 
introduction  dealing  with  the  history  of  excavation  and  the  decipher- 
ment of  inscriptions. 

RAWLINSON.     History  of  Ancient  Egypt.     2  vols.     Scribners. 

PATON.  The  Early  History  of  Syria  and  Palestine.  Scribners.  An 
admirable  little  book,  well  constructed  and  accurate. 

PERROT  AND  CHIPIEZ.  History  of  Art  in  Ancient  Egypt.  2  vols.  His- 
tory of  Art  in  Ancient  Babylonia  and  Assyria.  2  vols.  Dodd, 
Mead  and  Co.  These  are  the  best  works  on  ancient  Oriental  art, 
fully  illustrated.  They  are  costly,  but  fully  repay  constant  con- 
sultation. The  same  is  true  of  the  other  works  of  these  authors. 

ERMAN.  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt.  Macmillan.  The  best  book  on 
Egyptian  antiquities. 

JASTROW.  The  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria.  Ginn  and  Co.  The 
standard  treatise  on  this  subject. 

STEINDORFF.  The  Religion  of  Ancient  Egypt.  Putnams.  An  excellent 
survey  by  a  competent  scholar. 

III.    THE   GREEK   EMPIRES 

ARISTOTLE.     On  the  Constitution  of  Athens.     Translated  by  Kenyon. 

Macmillan. 
HOMER.     Iliad.    Translated    by    Lang,    Leaf    and    Myers.     Odyssey. 

Translated  by  Butcher  and  Lang.      Macmillan.     Excellent  prose 

versions. 
HERODOTUS.     Translated   by   Rawlinson,   edited   by   Grant.     2    vols. 

Scribners. 

THTJCYDIDES.     Translated  by  Jowett.     Clarendon  Press. 
XENOPHON.      Works.      Translated  by  Dakyns.      Macmillan.      These 

are  the  best  translations,  but  in  the  Bohn  series  others  may  be  ob- 
tained at  less  expense. 
PLATO.     Socrates.     A  translation  of  the  Apology,  Crito  and  Parts  of  the 

Phaedo  of  Plato.     Scribners. 


Appendix  I  451 

SOPHOCLES,  Antigone.  Prose  translation  byG.  H.  Palmer.  Houghton, 
Mifflin  and  Co.  Works.  In  Prose,  translated  by  Coleridge.  Bell. 

AESCHYLUS.     Translated  by  Plumptre.     D.  C.  Heath  and  Co. 

EURIPIDES.  Translated  into  prose  by  Coleridge.  Bell.  In  verse  by 
Way.  Macmillan. 

ARISTOPHANES.  Translated  by  Frere  ("Acharnians,"  "Knights," 
"Birds"  in  Morley's  Universal  Library).  Routledge.  5  vols. 

DEMOSTHENES.  5  vols.  Translated  by  Kennedy.  Macmillan.  On 
the  Crown.  Translated  by  Collier.  Longmans. 

CURTIUS.     History  of  Greece.     5  vols.     Scribners. 

HOLM.     History  of  Greece.     4  vols.     Macmillan. 

Curtius  and  Holm  are  very  different  in  point  of  view  and  treat- 
ment. Curtius  emphasizes  the  aesthetic;  Holm  the  political.  Cur- 
tius is  the  more  interesting;  Holm  is  more  recent  and  hence  more 
accurate  and  satisfactory. 

DURUY.  History  of  Greece.  Dana  Estes  and  Co.  Profusely  illustrated 
and  written  with  French  clearness  and  grace.  Not,  however,  the 
work  of  a  great  scholar. 

TSOUNTAS  AND  MANATT.  The  Mycenaan  Age.  Houghton,  Mifflin 
and  Co.  A  thorough  discussion  of  recent  discoveries  in  primitive 
Greece  (up  to  1897). 

PERROT  AND  CHIPIEZ.  History  of  Art  in  Primitive  Greece.  2  vols. 
Practically  a  discussion  of  Mycenaean  Civilization. 

SCHUCKARDT.     Schliemann's  Excavations.     Macmillan. 

GRANT.     Greece  in  the  Age  of  Pericles.     Scribners. 

MAHAFFY.     Social  Life  in  Greece.     Macmillan. 

"  Greek  Life  and  Thought  from  Alexander  to  the  Roman  Con- 

quest.    Macmillan. 
"  The  Greek  World  under  Roman  Sway.     Macmillan. 

Mahaffy's  books  are  stimulating,  full  of  learning,  sometimes  rather 
opinionated. 

HOGARTH.  Philip  and  Alexander  of  Macedon.  Scribners.  A  stirring 
exposition  of  the  ideals  and  achievements  of  these  heroes.  Espe- 
cially appreciative  of  Philip. 

WHEELER.  Alexander  the  Great.  Putnams.  The  best  life  of  Alexander, 
well  illustrated. 

MAHAFFY.  The  Ptolemaic  Dynasty.  Vol.  4  of  Petrie's  History  of 
Egypt.  Scribners.  A  singularly  vivid  and  strong  picture  of  this 
remarkable  age. 

FREEMAN.  History  of  Federal  Government.  Macmillan.  One  of 
Freeman's  best  works.  Deals  in  great  detail  with  the  Achscan  and 
/Etolian  Leagues. 


452  Appendix  I 

GARDNER,  E.  A.     Ancient  Athens.    Macmillan.     The  work  of  an  expert 

in  Greek  art  and  archaeology. 

"  A  hand-book  of  Greek  Sculpture.     Macmillan. 

DIEHL.     Excursions  in  Greece.     Grevel. 
BECKER.     Charicles.     Longmans.     This   time-honored   scholastic   tale 

of  ancient  Greece  is  still  useful  for  reference. 
MARSHALL.     A  Short  History  of  Greek  Philosophy. 
DYER.     The  Gods  in  Greece.     Macmillan. 
DAVIDSON.     Education  of  the  Greek  People.     Appletons. 
JEBB.     Classical  Greek  Poetry.     Houghton,  Mifflin  and  Co. 
SYMONDS.     Studies  in  the  Greek  Poets.     Macmillan. 

The   above   are   five   excellent   works  on  the  phases  of  Greek 
civilization  indicated  by  their  titles. 


IV.    THE    EMPIRE    OF   ROME 

LIVY.     Translated  by  Spillan.     4  vols.     Bohn. 

TACITUS.     Translated  by  Church  and  Brodribb.     2  vols.     Macmillan. 

POLYBIUS.     Translated  by  Shuckburgh.     2  vols.     Macmillan. 

APPIAN.     Translated  by  White.     2  vols.     Macmillan. 

Translations  and  Reprints  from  the  Original  Sources  of  European  His- 
tory, Department  of  History,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Vol.  5. 
No.  i.  Monumentum  Ancyranum,  The  Deeds  of  Augustus. 

CICERO.     Letters.     Translated  by  Shuckburgh.     Bohn. 
"  Works.     Translated  in  Bohn's  Library. 

LUCRETIUS.     Translated  into  prose  by  Munro.     Bell. 

VERGIL.     Translated  into  prose  by  Bryce.     2  vols.     Bell. 

HORACE.  Translated  by  Martin.  2  vols.  Scribners.  Or,  into  prose 
by  Lonsdale  and  Lee.  Macmillan. 

OVID.     Translated  by  Riley.     Bohn. 

JUVENAL.     Translated  by  Gifford.     Bohn. 

MARCUS  AURELIUS.  Meditations.  Translated  with  introduction  by 
Rendall.  Macmillan. 

MOMMSEN.     A  History  of  Rome.     5  vols.     Scribners. 

"  The  Provinces  of  the  Roman  Empire.     2  vols.     Scribners. 

These  seven  volumes  contain  Vols.  1-3  and  5  of  the  German 
original.  The  fourth  volume  of  the  History,  covering  the  period 
from  Julius  Caesar  to  Augustus,  was  left  unwritten. 

DURUY.  History  o}  Rome.  8  vols.  Dana  Estes  and  Co.  Of  the 
same  character  as  his  History  of  Greece. 


Appendix  I  453 

PELHAM.     Outlines  of  Roman  History.     Putnams.     The  most  analytic 

and  scholarly  one-volume  history.     Too  advanced  for  the  elemen- 
tary student.     Reaches  to  A.D.  476. 
STRACHAN-DAVIDSON.     Cicero.     Putnams. 
FOWLER.     Cozsar.     Putnams. 

Two  excellent  volumes  in  the  series  "Heroes  of  the  Nations." 
MERIVALE.     History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire.     6  vols.     Ap- 

pletons.       From  Augustus  to  the  Antonines.     Not  a  great  work, 

but  clear,  in  full  detail  and  interesting. 
GIBBON.     Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.     Edited  by  Bury. 

7  vols.     Scribners. 

FIRTH.     Augustus  Casar.     Putnams. 
SHUCKBURGH.     Augustus.     Fisher  Unwin. 

Two  useful  lives  of  the  first  Roman  emperor. 
BURY.     The  Later  Roman  Empire.     2  vols.     Macmillan. 
HODGKIN.     Italy  and  Her  Invaders.     7  vols.     Clarendon  Press. 
Theodoric.     Putnams. 

"  Charks  the  Great.     Macmillan. 

BRYCE.     The  Holy  Roman  Empire.     Macmillan.     Of  great  value  for 

the  closing  epoch  of  Ancient  History. 
JOHNSTONE.     Mohammed  and  his  Power.    Scribners. 
MACDONALD.     Development  of   Muslim   Theology,  Jurisprudence  and 

Constitutional   Theory.     Scribners. 

The  above  two  useful  works  in  small  compass  cover  the  whole 

field  of  Mohammedan  history,  life  and  thought. 
GREENIDGE.     Roman  Public  Life.     Macmillan.     Fuller  than  Abbott's 

Roman  Political  Institutions,  scholarly,  valuable. 
ARNOLD.     Roman  Provincial  Administration.     Macmillan.     A  standard 

authority. 
RAMSAY.     The  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire  before  A.D.  1 70.     Putnams. 

A  stimulating  discussion  by  an  unusually  competent  scholar. 
UHLHORN.     Conflict  of  Christianity  -with  Heathenism.     Scribners. 
STANLEY.     History  of  the  Eastern  Church.     Scribners.     Vivid  pictures 

of  the  relations  of  the  Church  and  the  Empire  in  the  fourth  and 

fifth  centuries. 
LECKY.    History  of  European  Morals  from  Augustus  to  Charlemagne. 

2  vols.     Appletons. 

INGE.     Society  in  Rome  under  the  Cecsars.     Scribners. 
PRESTON  AND  DODGE.    Private  Life  of  the  Romans.    Leach. 
THOMAS.     Roman  Life  under  the  Ceesars.     Putnams. 
DILL.     Roman  Society  in    the    Last  Century  of  tlie  Western  Empire. 

Macmillan. 


454  Appendix  I 

The  above  four  works  are  excellent  hand-books  on  the  society 
of  the  periods  with  which  they  deal. 

LANCIANI.     Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  oj  Recent  Discoveries.     Hough- 
ton,  Mifflin  and  Co. 
Ruins    and    Excavations    of   Ancient    Rome.      Houghton, 

Mifflin  and  Co. 

Gum,  AND  KONER.     Life  oj  the  Greeks  and  Romans.     Scribners. 
HILL.     Handbook  of  Greek  and  Roman  Coins.     Macmillan. 
FOWLER.     Roman  Festivals.     Macmillan. 

The  above  are  two  excellent  scholarly  manuals  on  these  subjects. 
BECKER.     Callus.    Longmans.     Of  the  same  character  as  his  Chari- 

cles. 

MATJ.     Pompeii,  Its  Life  and  Art.     Macmillan. 
WICKHOFF.     Roman  Art.     Macmillan. 

ANDERSON  AND  SPIERS.     The  Architecture  of  Greece  and  Rome.    Bots- 
ford. 

The  best  volume  on  this  subject. 
CRTJTTWELL.    Roman  Literature.    Putnams. 
LAWTON.     Introduction  to  Classical  Latin  Literature.     Scribners. 
SELLAR.     Roman  Poets  of  the  Augustan  Age.     Clarendon  Press. 

Cruttwell  is  very  full,  Lawton  more  popular,  Sellar  a  standard 
treatise  on  its  theme. 


APPENDIX   II 

NOTES    ON    THE    ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLATE  I.  THE  PARTHENON  AND  ITS  FRIEZE. — The  attempt  is 
made  in  this  plate  to  reproduce  the  effect  wrought  by  the  use  of 
color  on  Greek  temples.  It  is  taken  from  Fenger's  work  on  the 
subject.  We  are  looking  at  the  northeast  corner  of  the  Parthenon. 
(See  Plate  VII  and  §  182.)  The  top  of  the  Doric  column  is  impres- 
sively shown.  The  sculptured  "metopes"  in  high  relief  represent 
various  scenes,  the  meaning  of  which  is  doubtful.  On  the  right 
side  is  a  knight  in  battle  array  and  a  combat  between  footmen.  On 
the  other  side  are  female  figures.  The  refinement,  coupled  with 
vigor  in  the  pose  and  execution  of  the  figures,  should  be  marked. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  plate  the  portion  of  the  frieze  pictured  is  taken 
from  that  upon  the  east  side  of  the  building.  From  the  right  the 
procession  of  maidens  bearing  sacrificial  vessels  is  advancing  toward 
a  group  of  men  conversing.  These  are  presumably  the  archons 
of  the  city.  To  the  left,  seated  facing  them,  are  the  gods  and  god- 
desses. The  one  farthest  to  the  left  has  been  identified  with  Posei- 
don, next  to  him  in  order  are  Dionysus,  Demeter  (?),  Aphrodite  with 
Eros  at  her  knee.  On  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon,  see  Tarbell, 
ch.  8,  and  Gardner,  Ancient  Athens,  ch.  7. 

PLATE  II.  TYPICAL  ORIENTAL  HEADS. — i.  The  portrait  of 
Hammurabi  stands  on  a  limestone  slab  found  near  the  site  of  ancient 
Agade  (§  13).  The  king  is  in  the  attitude  of  adoration  with  hands 
uplifted.  Study  the  cap,  the  hair  and  the  beard  as  illustrating  the 
style  of  dress.  2.  The  head  of  Rameses  II  is  taken  from  his  mummy 
now  in  the  Museum  at  Cairo,  Egypt.  The  remarkable  profile 
betokens  a  man  of  imperious  character.  3.  The  head  of  Esarhad- 
don,  the  Assyrian,  is  from  a  stone  tablet  found  in  Syria.  The 
conical  cap  betokens  royalty.  The  curled  beard  and  hair  are 
characteristic  of  Assyrian -Babylonian  style,  and  may  be  compared 
with  those  of  head  i.  The  king  holds  in  his  uplifted  hand  an  object 
455 


456  Appendix  II 

which  he  is  offering  (?)  to  his  god.  The  Semitic  type  of  face  is 
evident.  4.  The  Syrian  head  is  equally  Semitic.  The  thick  shock 
of  hair,  bound  with  a  fillet,  and  the  beard  are  characteristic  of  the 
Syrian  in  distinction  from  the  shaven  Egyptian  and  the  carefully 
barbered  Assyrian.  5.  The  head  of  the  Philistine  illustrates  by  its 
unlikeness  to  the  features  of  the  other  heads  the  non-Semitic  charac- 
ter of  this  people.  The  helmet  or  head-dress  (of  feathers?)  is  like- 
wise peculiar.  6.  The  Hittite  is  distinguishable  from  Semitic  heads 
by  nose  and  chin.  The  hair  hangs  in  a  pigtail  and  the  eyes  are 
oblique,  suggestive  of  the  Chinese.  Heads  4,  5  and  6  are  from 
Egyptian  reliefs.  Observe  that  all  of  these  heads  are  in  profile.  Why 
was  this  characteristic  of  Oriental  art?  See  Tarbell,  pp.  33,  38-42. 

PLATE  III.  PAINTING  FROM  AN  EGYPTIAN  TOMB.— These  pict- 
ures adorn  the  wall  on  the  tomb  of  a  noble  in  the  time  of  the  twelfth 
dynasty  (§  16).  At  the  top  is  a  hieroglyphic  inscription  giving  the 
usual  prayers  for  the  dead.  Following  in  order  from  top  to  bottom 
are  represented  (i)  the  making  of  sandals,  (2)  the  making  of  arrows, 
chairs,  and  boxes,  (3)  goldsmiths'  work,  (4)  the  making  of  pottery, 
(5)  the  preparing  of  flax  and  the  making  of  linen,  (6)  harvesting 
and  threshing,  (7)  ploughing  and  sowing.  The  picturing  of  these  on 
the  wall  of  tomb,  together  with  the  sacred  words  above,  was  thought 
to  assure  to  the  dead  the  enjoyment  of  such  things  in  the  world  to 
come.  Besides  the  representation  of  Egyptian  life  here,  the  student 
has  an  excellent  opportunity  to  study  the  merits  and  defects  of 
Egyptian  art. 

PLATE  IV.  BABYLONIAN  AND  EGYPTIAN  TEMPLES.— a.  This 
restoration  of  the  temple  at  Nippur  was  made  by  Professor  Hilprecht. 
As  one  passed  through  the  great  oblong  tower-gate  in  the  outer  wall, 
he  entered  the  outer  court,  measuring  260  by  260  feet,  containing  a 
small  shrine.  Through  similar  but  greater  gates  the  inner  court 
was  reached.  There  directly  in  front  was  the  mighty  stage-tower, 
its  sides  190  by  128  feet.  At  the  top  of  the  tower  was  a  shrine  to 
the  god.  Besides  the  stage-tower  was  the  temple  proper,  the  "house 
of  Bel."  It  consisted  of  one-story  roofed  chambers  and  open  courts. 
Off  to  the  right  of  the  picture  is  one  of  the  city-gates.  In  front  of 
the  temple  area  was  the  canal. 

b.  The  Egyptian  temple  lay  along  the  Nile.  Leading  up  to  the 
entrance  was  a  road  bordered  by  sphynxes.  In  front  of  the  gate 


Appendix  II  457 

were  two  obelisks,  symbolizing,  perhaps,  the  rays  of  the  sun-god, 
and  some  sitting  statues  of  the  kings  or  gods.  A  square  entrance, 
flanked  by  huge  buttresses  called  pylons,  admitted  to  the  court,  sur- 
rounded by  a  portico  upheld  by  pillars.  Through  this  was  the 
passage  by  pylon  gateways  into  a  covered  hall,  thence  into 
another  pillared  court.  The  "holy  of  holies,"  the  shrine  of  the 
god,  was  in  the  low  rooms  at  the  rear  of  the  long  series  of  courts  and 
halls.  Thick  high  walls  and  lofty  pylons  shut  off  entrance  except 
through  the  front  of  the  temple.  Light  was  admitted  through  the 
courts.  The  chambers  were  entirely  dark.  The  length  of  the  whole 
structure  was  over  790  feet,  its  width  over  100  feet. 

PLATE  V.  TYPICAL  ASSYRIAN  SCENES. — a.  This  relief  is  cut 
from  the  surface  of  a  limestone  slab,  and  was  one  of  a  series  which 
lined  the  walls  of  the  Assyrian  royal  palace.  King  Ashurbanipal 
(§  72)  is  galloping  after  a  lion  and  in  the  act  of  discharging  an  arrow 
at  him.  An  attendant  follows  with  fresh  javelins  and  arrows.  The 
energy  and  life  of  the  scene,  as  well  as  the  subject,  are  typical.  A 
study  of  the  dress  and,  indeed,  of  the  various  objects  represented, 
as  well  as  of  the  excellences  and  defects  of  the  pose,  will  reward 
the  student  with  new  light  on  Assyrian  life  and  art. 

b.  This  relief  represents  the  siege  and  assault  of  the  city  of  Lachish 
by  King  Sennacherib  (§72).  See  2  Kings  18 :  14.  A  breach  has 
been  made  in  the  walls  directly  in  front,  where  the  Assyrian  military 
engines  are  playing.  Torches  are  being  hurled  down  upon  the 
besiegers;  the  fire  is  being  put  out  with  pans  of  water;  archers  are 
pouring  clouds  of  arrows  on  the  defenders.  Scaling  ladders  are 
raised  against  the  walls.  In  front,  prisoners  are  impaled  on  stakes. 
From  one  of  the  towers  captives  are  coming  forth  with  their  effects. 
The  animation  and  variety  of  the  scene  are  only  equalled  by  the 
grotesqueness  of  the  art.  Try  to  get  the  artist's  point  of  view  and 
study  the  details  of  the  scene  for  the  collection  of  facts  concerning 
ancient  military  life. 

PLATE  VI.  GOLD  CUPS  OF  THE  MYCENAEAN  AGE. — These  cups 
were  found  at  Vaphio  in  Laconia  in  1888,  and  hence  are  called  the 
Vaphio  cups.  The  upper  design  represents  a  hunt  of  wild  cattle. 
The  centre  one  is  caught  in  a  net.  On  the  right  another  is  in  full 
flight,  while  on  the  left  a  third  has  thrown  one  hunter  and  is  goring 
another.  In  the  lower  design  the  bulls  are  tame  and  under  the  care 


458  Appendix  II 

of  a  herdsman.  The  material  is  beaten  gold.  A  sense  of  abounding 
life  coupled  with  some  crudity  is  the  characteristic  impression  made 
by  these  works.  See  Tarbell,  pp.  67-69;  Tsountas  and  Manatt, 
pp.  227-228. 

PLATE  VII.  THE  ACROPOLIS.— This  restoration  of  the  buildings 
on  the  Acropolis  is,  like  all  such  attempts,  probably  not  accurate, 
but  it  represents  the  general  situation  and  relation  of  the  different 
structures  (§  182).  The  entrance  at  the  western  end  was  by  the 
Propylaea,  at  the  head  of  which  stood  the  colossal  statue  of  Athene. 
To  the  right  was  the  Temple  of  Victory.  At  the  centre  of  the 
elevated  platform  the  Parthenon  lay  on  the  right  and  the  Erechtheum 
on  the  left.  The  Parthenon  was  entered  at  the  eastern  end.  Other 
smaller  temples  filled  up  the  enclosure.  The  Acropolis  was  about 
1,000  feet  long  by  500  feet  wide;  it  was  a  sort  of  oval  with  its  long 
axis  lying  east  and  west.  (See  Plan  of  Athens,  p.  133.) 

PLATE  VIII.  THE  HERMES  OF  PRAXITELES.— This  statue  was 
found  at  Olympia  in  1877.  The  god  Hermes  has  the  infant  Diony- 
sus on  his  arm.  The  god's  mantle  is  thrown  over  a  tree-trunk  and 
he  stands  with  his  body  gracefully  curved,  its  weight  resting  on  the 
right  leg  and  left  arm.  It  would  seem  that  the  right  arm  held  some- 
thing which  was  being  offered  to  Dionysus.  The  material  is  Parian 
marble.  The  child  is  not  successfully  modelled,  but  the  figure  of 
Hermes  is  of  extraordinary  excellence.  Forget  the  mutilation  as 
far  as  possible.  A  special  study  should  be  given  to  the  head.  For 
a  full  description  see  Tarbell,  pp.  221-223. 

PLATE  IX.  THE  LAOCOON  GROUP. — This  group  represents  the 
scene  described  by  Vergil  in  the  ^Eneid  (II,  199-233),  where  the 
priest  Laocoon,  advising  against  admitting  the  Trojan  horse  into 
Troy,  is,  with  his  sons,  slain  by  serpents.  It  is  a  work  of  the  school 
of  Rhodes  about  150  B.C.  The  exhibition  of  horror  and  agony  is 
the  salient  feature  of  the  work.  The  Laocoon  has  been  variously 
judged.  For  examples,  see  Tarbell,  pp.  264-267. 

PLATE  X.  THE  ALEXANDER  MOSAIC. — This  mosaic  came 
from  the  floor  of  a  room  in  the  so-called  house  of  the  Faun  in  Pompeii. 
In  the  lower  left-hand  corner  a  portion  of  it  has  been  broken  away. 
It  represents  probably  the  battle  of  Issus  (§  258)  at  the  point  where 
Darius  turns  in  his  chariot  to  flee,  and  Alexander  on  horseback 
presses  on  in  his  charge.  "At  the  head  of  the  Greek  horsemen  rides 


Appendix  II  459 

Alexander,  fearless,  unhelmeted,  leading  a  charge  against  the  picked 
guard  of  Darius.  The  long  spear  of  the  terrible  Macedonian  is 
piercing  the  side  of  a  Persian  noble,  whose  horse  sinks  under  him. 
The  driver  of  Darius's  chariot  is  putting  the  lash  to  the  horses,  but 
the  fleeing  king  turns  with  an  expression  of  anguish  and  terror  to 
witness  the  death  of  his  courtier.  .  .  .  The  grouping  of  the 
combatants,  the  characterization  of  the  individual  figures,  the 
skill  with  which  the  expressions  upon  the  faces  are  rendered,  and 
the  delicacy  of  coloring,  give  this  picture  a  high  rank  among  ancient 
works  of  art."  See  Mau,  Pompeii,  its  Life  and  Art,  p.  288. 

PLATE  XI.  TYPICAL  GREEK  HEADS.— i.  The  first  is  taken  from 
a  full-length  statue  of  Sophocles  (§  183).  It  is  an  ideal  representa- 
tion of  the  poet,  no  doubt,  but  it  is  instructive  as  illustrating  the 
Greek  type.  The  arrangement  of  hair  and  beard  should  be  noticed. 
The  failure  to  work  out  the  detail  of  the  eye  gives  the  aspect  of 
blindness,  and  is  a  defect  of  Greek  sculpture.  Compare  some 
modern  statue  in  this  respect.  2.  The  head  of  Pericles  bears  a 
helmet  as  a  sign  of  leadership  (§  171).  A  calm,  thoughtful,  some- 
what reserved  expression  on  the  face  is  discernible.  3.  The  head 
of  Socrates  is  noticeable  for  its  originality,  and  offers  some  instruc- 
tive comparisons  with  the  preceding.  The  breadth  of  the  face 
contrasts  with  that  of  the  others.  4.  The  head  of  Aphrodite  is 
taken  from  the  statue  found  in  the  island  of  Melos.  The  grace  and 
purity  of  the  face  illustrate  the  Greek  ideals  of  love  and  of  woman. 
5.  The  head  of  Alexander  is  taken  from  a  relief  on  a  sarcophagus 
now  in  Constantinople.  He  wears  a  lion's  head  instead  of  a  helmet, 
and  the  ram's  horn  appears,  typical  of  his  divine  descent  from  the 
Egyptian  god  Amon.  The  characteristic  Greek  profile  is  instruc- 
tive. 6.  The  last  head  is  taken  from  a  Graeco-Egyptian  portrait 
painted  on  a  wooden  panel  placed  in  a  grave  along  with  the  mummy 
and  intended  to  represent  the  features  of  the  dead.  It  is  clear  that 
the  Greek  in  Egypt  remained  in  all  essential  traits  a  Greek.  The 
thin  beard,  the  oval  face,  the  large  eye,  the  straight  nose  find  their 
counterparts  in  the  other  heads.  A  golden  wreath  in  the  hair  is 
exquisitely  done. 

PLATE  XII.  CLASSICAL  TEMPLES.— a.  The  Greek  temple  at 
Psstum  in  southern  Italy  belongs  to  the  sixth  century  B.C.  It  is, 
therefore,  an  early  type.  A  double  row  of  sturdy  Doric  columns 


460  Appendix  II 

surrounds  the  shrine.  The  temple  was  built  of  limestone  and 
covered  with  stucco. 

b.  The  Roman  temple  is  a  modification  of  the  Greek.  This 
temple,  59  by  117  feet,  is  surrounded  by  a  single  row  of  Corinthian 
columns  30  feet  6  inches  in  height.  It  dates,  probably,  from  the 
time  of  Hadrian  (A.D.  122).  Changes  in  certain  features  of  the 
temple  of  the  Greek  type  can  be  clearly  seen  by  comparison  of  these 
two  structures. 

PLATE  XIII.  TYPICAL  SCULPTURED  FIGURES.— a.  The  statue 
of  Khafre  is  of  green  diorite,  a  very  hard  stone.  The  Pharaoh  is 
seated  on  the  royal  chair  in  an  attitude  of  regal  composure  and 
majesty.  The  head-dress,  false  beard  and  body  garment  are  char- 
acteristically Egyptian.  Special  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
face  and  the  pose.  The  right  leg  of  the  statue  is  badly  broken. 
In  judging  of  Egyptian  art  the  other  specimens  in  Plates  II  and  III 
should  be  taken  into  account,  and  also  the  examples  in  Tarbell, 
pp.  16-35. 

b.  Posidippus  was  an  Athenian  playwright  of  the  third  century 
B.C.,  and  the  statue  is  a  striking  example  of  the  portrait  statuary 
of  the  period.  The  easy  grace  of  the  pose  as  well  as  the  cultured 
refinement  of  the  face  and  bearing  are  especially  worthy  of  note. 
The  student  will  be  profited  by  a  study  of  the  dress,  the  chair,  and 
other  accessories.  It  would  be  well  to  compare  these  two  figures 
with  each  other,  and  also  the  face  of  the  Greek  with  those  of  the 
typical  heads  of  Plate  XI. 

PLATE  XIV.  TYPICAL  SCULPTURED  FIGURES.— a.  The  statue 
of  Ashurnatsirpal  is  the  only  fully  wrought  Assyrian  statue  known. 
The  king  stands  in  royal  majesty,  his  arms  bare.  The  right  hand 
holds  a  sceptre,  the  left  a  mace.  The  hair  and  beard  as  well  as  the 
royal  dress  deserve  notice.  See  Goodspeed,  History  of  the  Babylo- 
nians and  Assyrians,  p.  202;  Tarbell,  pp.  40,  41. 

b.  The  statue  of  Trajan  represents  him,  probably,  in  the  act  of 
addressing  his  soldiers.  He  wears  a  cuirass,  and  his  mantle  is  draped 
over  his  shoulder  and  around  his  arm.  A  series  of  instructive  com- 
parisons may  be  drawn  between  the  two  royal  figures  on  this  plate. 

PLATES  XV  and  XVI.  TYPICAL  COINS.— i.  A  coin  of  Lydia 
of  the  type  of  the  Babylonian  "stater."  One  of  the  earliest  known 
coins  (§  119).  Date  about  700  B.C.  The  material  is  electrum. 


Appendix  II  461 

2.  A  Persian  gold  "daric  "  (§  87)  of  Darius  I.  3.  A  gold  "stater" 
of  Mithridates  of  Pontus  (§  404).  Here  is  the  king  himself  repre- 
sented, with  hair  blown  back  as  though  he  were  driving  a  chariot. 
The  reverse  shows  a  stag  feeding.  A  long  period  of  growth  in  the 
artistic  production  of  coins  lies  between  2  and  3.  4.  Another  Ori- 
ental gold  coin,  representing  Queen  Berenice  of  Egypt,  wife  of 
Ptolemy  III.  Both  this  and  the  preceding  are  noticeable  because 
on  them  are  portraits  of  the  reigning  monarchs.  5.  A  silver  medal- 
lion of  Syracuse.  The  coins  of  this  city  reached  the  highest  artistic 
excellence.  The  head  is  that  of  Persephone  surrounded  by  dol- 
phins. The  reverse  shows  the  victor  in  a  chariot- race;  over  the 
chariot  hovers  Victory  conferring  the  laurel.  The  design  and  work- 
manship of  this  coin  are  specially  worthy  of  study.  6.  A  silver 
"stater"  of  the  Greek  city  of  Amphipolis  and  dating  about  400  B.C. 
The  head  of  the  god  Apollo  appears  on  the  one  side,  and  on  the 
other  a  torch  such  as  the  racers  bore.  The  god's  head  is  remark- 
able for  animation.  7.  A  silver  "tetradrachm"  of  Athens,  about 
550  B.C.,  earlier  and  ruder  than  the  preceding.  On  the  one  side 
is  the  head  of  Athene,  patron  goddess  of  the  city,  on  the  other  the 
olive  branch  and  sacred  owl.  8.  A  silver  "shekel"  of  Judaea  in  the 
time  of  Simon  Maccabaeus  (§374)-  A  cup,  a  pot  of  manna  and 
triple  lily  are  the  emblems,  and  the  letters  signify  "shekel  of  Israel," 
and  "Jerusalem  the  holy."  9.  A  bronze  "sestertius"  of  Nero. 
The  emperor  appears  on  horseback  armed  with  a  spear  and  accom- 
panied by  a  mounted  soldier  carrying  a  banner.  10.  A  silver  coin 
of  the  Roman  Republic  about  100  B.C.  The  head  of  Roma,  Victory 
in  a  chariot  and  an  ear  of  corn  are  represented.  The  name  of  the 
official  who  coined  the  piece  also  appears,  n.  A  gold  "solidus" 
of  the  Emperor  Honorius  (§  497)  from  Ravenna.  The  portrait  of  the 
emperor  is  given  in  the  style  characteristic  of  this  late  age.  He 
wears  the  diadem  and  holds  the  sceptre.  12.  A  bronze  "sestertius" 
of  Antoninus  Pius  (§  465)-  An  excellent  wreathed  portrait-head 
of  the  emperor  stands  on  one  side;  on  the  other  is  Roma  with  the 
palladium,  and  the  inscription  "Roma  aetema."  13.  A  silver  coin 
of  Augustus  (§  426).  The  emperor  appears  on  the  one  side;  on 
the  other,  one  of  his  favorite  symbols,  the  Sphynx.  14.  A  silver 
"denarius"  of  the  Republic  (90-94  B.C.).  The  bust  of  Roma 
appears.  On  the  other  side  are  three  citizens  engaged  in  voting— a 


462  Appendix  II 

typical  scene.  15.  A  silver  "argenteus"  of  the  Emperor  Caracalla 
(§  478).  His  portrait,  with  his  head  surrounded  with  the  sun's  rays, 
is  characteristic  of  the  time.  (See  §  482.)  16.  A  bronze  "as"  of 
Rome,  weighing  one  and  one-fifth  ounces.  The  symbols  are  the 
head  of  the  god  Janus  and  the  prow  of  a  galley.  The  date  is  just 
before  217  B.C.  The  symbols  are  characteristic  in  view  of  the 
date.  Why?  (See  §  360.) 

PLATE  XVII.  THE  ROMAN  FORUM.— This  plate  represents 
the  Forum  and  its  surroundings  in  the  imperial  period.  The  Forum 
itself  was  never  very  large  (§  307)  and  was  early  surrounded  by 
buildings  and  filled  with  statues.  At  the  upper  end  into  which  we 
look  stood  the  Rostra.  The  various  public  buildings  are  named 
upon  the  plate  itself.  A  plate  representing  the  Forum  at  the  present 
day  will  be  found  in  Morey,  Roman  History,  frontispiece. 

PLATE  XVIII.  TYPICAL  ROMAN  HEADS.— i.  The  striking  head 
of  Julius  Caesar  is  that  of  a  man  of  force  and  ideas.  The  high  fore- 
head, the  prominent  cheek-bones,  the  firm  mouth  and  thin  lips 
reveal  the  general  and  the  statesman.  He  is  also  the  typical  Roman 
patrician.  The  sculptor  evidently  sought  to  produce  an  exact 
likeness.  2.  Cicero  is  the  typical  urbane  and  cultivated  Roman 
of  the  middle  class.  His  face  has  a  strikingly  modern  character, 
being  distinctively  Roman,  perhaps,  in  its  dignity  and  the  traces 
of  sternness.  The  chin  and  nose  of  both  these  typical  Romans 
are  noteworthy.  3.  Vespasian's  head  illustrates  exactly  that  of 
the  Roman  peasant,  honest,  unyielding,  practical.  Notice  the 
cropped  hair,  thick  neck  and  decided  mouth.  4.  Hadrian's  head 
and  hair  are  characteristic  of  the  ruler  of  the  later  imperial  age.  His 
face  is  of  the  western  type,  yet  not  Roman.  5.  Faustina,  the  wife 
of  Marcus  Aurelius,  is  the  typical  Roman  matron.  The  features 
are  strong  and  simple  without  the  ideal  grace  of  the  Greek  type. 
Such  a  woman  would  naturally  accompany  her  husband  on  his 
campaigns.  Notice  the  dressing  of  the  hair.  6.  The  bust  of  Corn- 
modus  represents  him  as  Hercules.  The  characteristic  club  is  in 
his  hand  and  the  lion's  skin  on  his  head.  The  curling  beard  and 
hair,  and,  indeed,  the  whole  representation,  disclose  the  vain  and 
frivolous  weakling.  It  is  a  long  step  from  Julius  Caesar  to  Corn- 
modus.  The  artistic  skill  of  the  sculptor  is  worthy  of  notice. 

PLATE  XIX.  RELIEF  FROM  THE  ARCH  OF  TITUS,— The  Arch  of 


Appendix  II  463 

Titus  commemorated  his  victory  over  the  Jews  and  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem  (§  447).  It  stood  on  the  Sacred  Way.  Unlike  the  Arch 
of  Constantine  (Plate  XXIII),  it  had  but  one  central  archway  and 
within  the  vault  of  this  was  the  relief  of  our  plate.  A  group  of 
soldiers  lead  captives  and  bear  the  spoils  of  the  Jewish  temple.  The 
golden  table  of  the  shewbread  and  the  seven-armed  golden  candle- 
stick are  prominent  among  them.  Laurels  crown  the  heads  of  the 
soldiers  and  they  carry  Roman  military  standards.  The  work  is  of 
Pentelic  marble,  and  testifies  to  the  artistic  taste  and  skill  of  the 
time. 

PLATE  XX.  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ART.— These  scenes  from  the 
life  of  Jonah  were  painted  on  the  walls  of  a  chamber  in  the  Cata- 
combs. They  are  dated  about  the  beginning  of  the  third  century 
A.D.  They  are  notable  not  merely  for  the  crudity  of  their  execution, 
but  also  for  the  religious  symbolism  which  they  set  forth.  The 
experiences  of  Jonah  had  a  twofold  meaning  for  the  Christian: 
(i)  they  were  types  of  the  death  and  resurrection  of  Jesus  (Matt. 
12:39-49),  and  (2)  they  encouraged  the  persecuted  believers  to 
persevere  in  the  trials  of  the  present  life  and  hope  for  the  life  to  come. 
The  "great  fish"  is  thought  to  be  copied  after  the  dragon  that 
figures  in  Graeco-Roman  mythology,  for  example,  in  the  story  of 
Andromeda,  representations  of  which  in  the  art  of  the  time  were 
not  uncommon.  The  symbolism  of  this  picture  is  further  carried 
out  by  the  mast  and  yard  of  the  ship  which  are  arranged  to  form  a 
cross. 

PLATE  XXI.  ROOM  FROM  THE  HOUSE  OF  THE  VETTH.— The 
House  of  the  Vettii  at  Pompeii  was  unearthed  in  1894,  and  contains 
some  of  the  best  preserved  memorials  of  Pompeian  art.  This  room, 
one  of  the  two  dining-rooms,  with  its  variegated  marble  work,  its 
paintings  and  its  frescoes,  illustrates  notably  the  character  of  the 
better  Roman  house  of  the  time.  The  subjects  of  the  paintings 
are  taken  from  Graeco-Roman  mythology.  On  the  right  is  Bacchus 
coming  on  the  sleeping  Ariadne.  On  the  left  are  Daedalus  and 
Pasiphse.  The  subject  of  the  painting  facing  us  is  the  punishment 
of  Ixion.  Hermes,  who  has  brought  Ixion,  is  in  front,  at  his  feet  a 
veiled  figure.  To  the  right  is  the  goddess  Hera,  and  on  the  left 
Hephaestus  has  just  fastened  Ixion  to  the  wheel.  See  Mau, 
Pompeii,  its  Lije  and  Art,  pp.  333-334- 


464  Appendix  II 

PLATE  XXII.  RELIEF  FROM  TRAJAN'S  COLUMN.— The  Column 
of  Trajan  stood  in  his  Forum  (Plate  XVII).  It  was  128  feet  high 
and  was  surmounted  by  a  statue  of  the  emperor  twenty  feet  high. 
A  spiral  staircase  of  185  steps  led  to  the  top.  Around  the  column 
wound  a  series  of  bronze  reliefs  in  twenty-three  tiers  representing 
scenes  in  the  Dacian  war  (§  468).  The  reliefs  contained  2,500 
figures.  In  the  centre  of  this  relief  appears  Trajan  receiving  from 
his  soldiers  the  heads  of  Dacian  spies.  To  the  left  a  siege  is  going 
on,  Roman  soldiers  advancing  to  the  assault  under  a  testudo. 
Observe  carefully  the  dress  and  weapons  of  the  soldiers. 

PLATE  XXIII.  TYPICAL  ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE.— a.  The 
highly  decorative  character  of  this  arch  is  at  once  evident.  Some 
of  the  adornments  were  taken  from  other  monuments,  for  example, 
the  four  great  statues  and  some  reliefs  from  an  arch  of  Trajan.  At 
the  top  were  originally  a  chariot  and  horses,  and  statues.  The 
arch  was  built  in  A.D.  315  to  commemorate  the  victory  of  Con- 
Stan  tine  over  Maxentius  in  312.  Its  proportions  are  fine  and  its 
adaptations  of  Greek  architecture  are  instructive.  Compare  it  with 
the  Arch  of  Titus  and  consider  whether  it  does  not  lack  dignity 
in  comparison  with  that.  See  Seignobos,  p.  322. 

b.  This  aqueduct  is  a  remarkable  union  of  simplicity,  strength 
and  beauty.  Its  length  is  882  feet,  its  height  162  feet.  The  water 
channel  above  is  covered  with  large  slabs  of  stone  about  fourteen 
feet  wide.  The  character  of  Roman  engineering  and  architectural 
work  is  most  fully  illustrated  by  it.  It  was  built  for  the  needs  of  a 
Gallic  city,  the  like  of  which,  in  size  and  importance,  were  to  be 
found  scattered  all  over  the  Roman  Empire.  The  various  features 
of  it  will  reward  study. 

PLATE  XXIV.  CHRIST  ENTHRONED.— This  fresco  stands  over 
one  of  the  doors  in  the  Mosque  of  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople, 
once  a  Christian  church  (§  502).  Christ  sits  on  his  throne  raising 
his  hand  in  blessing.  On  either  side  are  Mary,  his  mother,  and 
Michael,  the  archangel.  Before  him  lowly  kneeling  is  the  emperor 
in  the  attitude  of  a  subject.  By  some  this  figure  is  said  to  be  the 
Emperor  Justinian  (§  501).  The  Greek  words  signify  "Peace  be 
unto  you.  I  am  the  light  of  the  world."  Study  both  subject  and 
style  of  execution  as  characteristic  of  Byzantine  art  and  the  times 
in  which  it  arose. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


The  references  are  to  pages,  not  sections.  Pronunciation 
is  indicated  by  accenting  the  proper  syllable.  A  few  diacrit- 
ical marks  and  abbreviations  are  employed: — e.g.,/.  indicates 
"following  page";^:,  "following pages";  «.,  "notes";  along 
mark  over  a  letter  shows  that  it  is  to  be  pronounced ;  an  italic- 
ized letter  is  silent. 


Academy,  196. 

Acan'thus,  166. 

Acarna'nia,   197. 

Achas'an  cities,  155. 

Achae'an  League,  226;  struggle  with 

Macedonia,    233    f.;   relations    to 

Rome,  312,  314;  dissolved,  316. 
Achemen'idae,  215. 
Achilles,  86,  89. 
Acrop'olis,  of  Athens,  107,  148. 
Ac'tium,  360. 
Adoption,   in   ancient  East,    19;  at 

Rome,  294. 
JE'gK,  197. 
./Egal'eos,  mt.,  126. 
jEga'tes  islands,  303. 
^Ege'an  sea,  40, 44. 
JEgi'na,  85,  95,  154. 
yEgospot'ami,  177. 
^mil'ius  Paul'us,  313. 
^Ene'as,  254. 
JEne'id,  367. 

/E'olus,  and  the  -fEolians,  93. 
^qui,  270,  273. 
^is'chylus,  129,  149,  151. 
A  e'tius,  428. 
Jf   >'lia,  197. 
A    "in     League,   226,    229,    234, 

3 

Afi  winces  of,  378. 

A'g  n;  empire  of,  29. 

Aga  lem'non,  86. 


Agath'ocles,  228,  301. 

Agesila'us,  184  f. 

Agrarian  problem  in  Greece,  99, 
io8f.,  in,  147,  156;  at  Rome, 
275,  283  f.,  285  f.,  334,  336. 

Agric'ola,  381,  404. 

Agriculture,  in  ancient  East,  14;  at 
Rome,  290,  320. 

A'gri  Decuma'tes,  381. 

Agrip'pa,  368,  371  f. 

ATiaz,  54. 

Alaman'ni,  409,  427,  435. 

Al'aric,  427  f. 

Al'ba  Lon'ga,  255  f. 

Alcse'us,  96. 

Alcibi'ades,  172  ff.,  178. 

Alcmaeon'idzD,  108,  112,  139. 

Alc'man,  96. 

Alexander,  youth  and  training,  208; 
campaigns  in  Greece,  209;  inva- 
sion of  Persia,  209  ff.;  development 
of  plans,  215;  lord  of  Persia,  215; 
organization  of  Empire,  216  ff., 
219;  world-ruler,  217;  death,  218; 
characterization,  218  f.;  Alexander 

II,  222  f. 

Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  213;  Egyptian 
Alexandria  under  the  Ptolemies, 
231  ff.;  Christianity  in,  415,  424; 
other  Alcxandrias,  219. 

Allia,  280. 

Alphabet,  20,  45,  95. 


465 


466 


General  Index 


Alps,  Hannibal's  passage  of,  304. 

Am'asis,  king  of  Egypt,  91. 

Ambra'cia,  197. 

Am'brose,  425. 

Am'monites,  7. 

Amon,  god  of  Egypt,  35,  39;  Alex- 
ander and,  214. 

Amphict'yony,  94;  the  leading  ones, 
94;  and  Philip  of  Macedon,  200, 
203. 

Amphip'olis,  166,  199. 

Amphitheatre,  387  f. 

Amusements,  in  ancient  East,  23;  in 
Greece, 94, 96,  in,  129, 147,  i49f., 
152;  at  Rome,  292,  324;  under  the 
Empire,  386  ff. 

Anab'asis,  of  Cyrus,  185. 

Anac'reon,  96. 

Anaxag'oras,  168  f. 

Anaxim'enes,  97. 

Ancestor  worship,  259. 

Ancient  history,  denned,  i;  value  of 
studying,  i;  extent  of,  3;  earliest 
seats  of,  5;  development  of,  3; 
divisions  of,  3;  end  of,  426  f., 

445- 

Ancus  Mar'tius,  255. 
Androni'cus,  326. 
Angles  and  Saxons,  440. 
Antal'cidas,  185. 
Antig'one,   149. 

Antig'onus,  222  f.;  Gonatas,  233. 
An'tioch,  230. 
Anti'ochus  I,  230;    III,  312  f.;   IV, 

3M- 

Antip'ater,  209,  210  f.,  225. 
Antoni'nus  Pius,  397,  399. 
Anto'nius,  M.,  the  orator,  327;  the 

triumvir  (Antony),  359  f. 
Ap'ennine,  nits.,  241. 
Aphrodi'te,  88. 

Apol'lo,  88  f.;  at  Delphi,  90  f.,  93. 
Ap'pian  Way,  251,  299. 
Ap'pius  Claud'ius,  the  censor,  284, 

299. 

A'quae  Sex'tiae,  337. 
Aqueduct,  297,  299,  389. 
Ara'bia,  6;  province  of,  401. 
Arabians,  invade  Babylonia,  12. 


Arame'ans,  original  home,  6;  in- 
vasions by,  43,  52;  kingdom  at 
Damascus,  49  f. 

Ara'tus,  234. 

Arbe'la,  51,  214. 

Arcadia,  early  history,  106;  de- 
mocracy in,  136;  united  by  Thebes, 
189. 

Arca'dius,  427. 

Archbishop,  414. 

Archil'ochus,  96. 

Architecture,  in  ancient  East,  23; 
Egyptian,  38;  Assyrian,  55;  Per- 
sian, 64;  Greek,  149;  Roman,  297, 
327;  in  Augustan  age,  368;  in 
first  century  A.D.,  389;  in  second 
century,  403  f.;  in  third  century, 
413;  in  Justinian's  time,  431. 

Ar'chon,  official  at  Athens,  108,  120, 
J37- 

Areop'agus,  council  of,  108,  no; 
decline  of,  137. 

A'res,  88. 

Arginu'sae,  177. 

Ar'go,  87. 

Ar'gos,  early  history,  106;  in  Persian 
wars,  118,  122;  democracy  at,  136; 
takes  part  in  Peloponnesian  War, 
173- 

Ari'on,  102. 

Aristi'des,  121,  126. 

Aristocracy,  in  Orient,  16;  in  early 
Greece,  83;  decline  of,  99  f.;  in 
Athens,  107  f.;  revival  in  Greece, 
181;  at  Rome,  253  f.,  264  f.,  268  f., 
274  f.;  becomes  oligarchy,  284  f.; 
the  nobility,  321  f.;  under  the  Em- 
pire, 380,  383;  Frankish,  436. 

Aristoph'anes,  168. 

Ar'istotle,  208,  224. 

A'rius  and  A'rians,  422  n.,  423  f. 

Arme'nia,  52;  and  Rome,  345,  4°*- 

Armin'ius,  371. 

Army.     See  "Warfare." 

Ar'no,  242. 

Arsa'ces,  231. 

Art,  in  ancient  East,  23;  in  Mycen- 
aean Greece,  78;  in  Periclean 
Athens,  148;  in  the  fourth  century 


General  Index 


467 


B.C.,  193  f.;  at  Rome,  297,  327, 
389;  early  Christian,  415;  Byzan- 
tine, 431.  See  "Architecture," 
"Sculpture." 

Artaba'zus,  128. 

Artaxer'xes  I,  176;  II,  184;  III,  190, 
210. 

Ar'temis,  88. 

Artemis'iura,  124. 

As,  291. 

Ash'dod,  46  n. 

Ashurban'ipal,  53;  rebellion  against, 
54;  death,  56. 

Ashurna'tsirpal,  5?. 

Asia,  province  of,  317,  340  f. 

Asia  Minor,  36,  40,  52,  90. 

As'kelon,  46  n. 

Assemblies,  in  Greece,  83  f.;  in 
Sparta,  105;  in  Athens,  108,  no, 
137  8.,  167;  at  Rome,  254,  269, 
275,  277,  283,  296,  332,  335,  341, 
362,  400,417;  provincial,  394.  See 
"Comitia." 

As'sur,  city,  32. 

Assyr'ia,  6,  32;  physical  features,  51; 
kingdom,  32;  empire,  51-57;  or- 
ganization, 53;  civilization,  55  f.; 
contribution  to  history,  56;  fall, 
56;  Roman  province  of,  401. 

Astronomy,  24,  97.     See  "Science." 

Athana'sius,  424. 

Athe'ne,  goddess  of  Athens,  85,  88, 
107,  149  f. 

Athens,  geographical  position  and 
people,  107;  early  organization, 
107  f.;  lawgivers,  Draco,  108  f.; 
Solon,  109  f.;  tyranny  of  Pisistra- 
tus  and  its  fall,  no  f.;  legislation 
of  Cleisthenes,  112  f.;  early  ex- 
pansion, 109  f.;  conies  in  contact 
with  Persia,  118;  change  in  politi- 
cal policy  under  Themistocles, 
121 ;  destroyed  by  Persians,  125; 
rebuilt,  127;  after  Persian  wars, 
132;  progress  under  Themistocles 
133  f.;  fortified,  133;  growth  of 
Imperialism,  135;  population,  141; 
the  citizen  of,  152;  income,  153; 
politics  under  Pericles,  153  ff. ;  de- 


cline of  land  empire,  155;  thirty 
years'  peace,  155;  expeditions 
against  Persia,  155;  empire  of, 
156  f.;  interferes  between  Corinth 
and  Corcyra,  159;  war  with  Sparta, 
160  ff.;  plague  at,  163;  parties  at, 
163;  end  of  first  period  of  war, 
1 66;  spirit  of  the  people  during  the 
war,  167  ff.;  expedition  against 
Syracuse,  174;  in  third  period  of 
war.  175  *•;  surrender  of,  177;  glory 
and  weakness  in  the  .war,  178  f.; 
second  naval  league,  189  f.;  intel- 
lectual splendor  in  fourth  century, 
194  ff.,  223  f.;  relations  to  Philip, 
201  ff.;  to  Alexander,  209,  223; 
literature  in  third  century,  234  f. 

Ath'esis,  242. 

Athos,  mt.,  119,  122. 

A'trium.    See  "House." 

At'talus,  229. 

At'tica,  107. 

At'tila,  428. 

Au'gur,  261. 

Augusta'les,  363. 

Aug'ustine,  438  f. 

Augus'tus,  his  problem,  360;  solu- 
tion of  it,  361  f.;  provincial  ad- 
ministration, 363;  foreign  policy, 
364  f.,  371;  defects  in  his  scheme 
of  administration,  370  f .;  achieve- 
ment, 373. 

Aurelian,  412. 

Aurelius,  Marcus,  397, 399, 402, 406. 

Aus'pices,  261,332. 

Austra'sia,  436. 

A'vars,  431. 

Av'entine  hill,  251  f. 

Bab'ylon,  1 1 ;  under  Nebuchadrezzar, 

59;  Alexander  at,  217. 
Babylo'nia,  physical  features  of,  5; 

first    kingdoms    in,    n;    why  so 

called,  12;  early  empire  of,  30  f.; 

New  Babylonian  Empire,  58  f. 
Bac'chus,  330. 
Bac'tria,  61,  231. 

Balea'ric  islands,  Phoenicians  in,  44. 
Bath,  at  Rome,  388.    . 


468 


General  Index 


Baltic  sea,  79. 

Bardi'ya,  61  f. 

Bel,  god  of  Babylonia,  n,  26. 

Belisa'rius,  431. 

Beneven'tum,  229,  283. 

Bi'as,  98. 

Bible,  438. 

Bishop,  395  n.,4i4;  of  Rome,  414  f. 
See  "Papacy." 

Bithyn'ia,  345. 

Black  sea,  90. 

Bce-o'tia,  in  Persian  wars,  122,  124, 
127;  democracy  in,  136;  compli- 
cations with  Athens,  155. 

Bon'iface,  440  f. 

Book  of  the  Dead,  27. 

Bos'phorus,  420. 

Bou'le,  of  Athens,  no,  113,  137. 

Bras'idas,  165  f. 

Bren'nus,  280. 

Bribery  at  Rome,  329,  332. 

Britain,  Phoenicians  in,  44;  Caesar 
in,  348;  under  Claudius,  378; 
under  Flavians,  381;  Anglo-Sax- 
ons in,  440. 

Bru'tus,  350,  360. 

Burgundians,  427,  436. 

Bur'rus,  376. 

Business,  Greek,  144.  See  "Mer- 
chant," "Industry." 

Byz'antine  art,  431. 

Byzan'tium,  90,  420. 

Cadmei'a,  186. 

Cae'lian  hill,  251,  253. 

Cserit'ian  right,  285  n. 

Caesar,  Caius  Julius,  his  rise,  344; 
first  triumvirate,  346;  in  Gaul, 
346  ff.;  conflict  with  Senate  and 
Pompey,  348  f.;  death,  350;  his 
measures,  350  f.;  as  a  writer,  353; 
his  work  and  personality  estimated, 
354- 

Caesar,  the  title,  380,  416. 

Caesar-worship,  368,  393. 

Ca'lah,  51. 

Calendar,  24,  290,  297,  352. 

Calig'ula,  375  n. 

Ca'liphs,  435. 


Cal'lias,  155  f. 

Callis'thenes,  216. 

Camby'ses,  61  f. 

Camil'lus,  272,  280. 

Campa'nia,  281. 

Cam'pus  Mar'tius,   252. 

Ca'naanites,  7,  47. 

Canary  islands,  Phoenicians  in,  44. 

Can'nae,  305. 

Canulei'an  law,  278. 

Capitalism,  at  Athens,  141,  143;  at 
Rome,  308,  320  ff.,  328  ff. 

Cap'itoline  hill,  251,  260. 

Cap'reae,    375. 

Cap'ua,  305. 

Caracal'la,  410  f. 

Car'men  Secula're,  368. 

Carthage,  founding  of,  45;  com- 
merce of,  45;  in  Sicily,  90,  182  f., 
227  f.;  expansion  in  the  West, 
300  f.;  early  relations  to  Rome, 
301;  wars  with  Rome,  301  ff.; 
becomes  a  dependent  ally,  306; 
destroyed,  316;  Caesar's  colony 
at,  351. 

Caspian  sea,  53,  61. 

Cassan'der,  222  f. 

Cas'sius,  Spurius,  269,  274  f.;  Gaius, 
350,  36o. 

Catalaun'ian  Fields,  428. 

Cat'iline,  344  f. 

Cato  the  Elder,  as  writer,  327;  as 
censor,  330. 

Catul'lus,    352. 

Cau'dine  Forks,  282. 

Cavalry,  Persian,  63,  128;  Mace- 
donian, 199;  Roman,  262,  288. 

Ce'crops,  84. 

Celts.     See  "Kelts." 

Cen'sor,  274,  296;  under  Flavian 
Caesars,  380. 

Cen'sus,  under  the  Empire,  364. 

Centuries,   262. 

Cephis'sus,  107. 

Ce'res,  259. 

Chaeronei'a,   203. 

Chalcid'ice,  198. 

Chal'cis,  85,  86. 

Chalons',  428. 


General  Index 


469 


Charlemagne    (main),   his   person- 
ality,   443;    achievements,  443  f.; 
emperor,  444;  significance,  444  f. 
Charles  Martel',  437,  441. 
Charon'das,    100. 
Chei'lon,  98. 

Children,  19,  55,  63,  104, 146,  293  f. 
See  "Education." 

China,   79. 

Chi'os,  85. 

Christianity,  founded,  369;  begin- 
nings of,  394  f.;  persecutions,  395  f., 
406,  419;  growth  in  unity,  407, 
414  f.,  423;  and  power,  437;  tol- 
eration of,  419;  recognition  of  by 
Constantine,  421  f.;  in  the  cities, 
423  n.;  religion  of  the  Empire, 
424;  Julian's  attack,  424;  as  an 
imperial  power,  437  f.;  the  mo- 
nastic movement,  438;  leaders  in 
fourth  century,  437  f.;  and  the 
barbarians,  440;  and  the  Franks, 
440  ff.  See  -'Papacy." 

Chronology,  eras  of,  94,  230,  254  n., 
369- 

Chrys'ostom,  437. 

Cic'ero.  his  rise  and  ideals,  344;  and 
Catiline,  345;  banished  and  re- 
called, 347;  as  an  orator  and 
writer,  353;  death,  360. 

Cilic'ia,  90,  345. 

Cim'bri,  337. 

Cimin'ian  forest,  281. 

Ci'mon,  135  f.,  137,  155. 

Cincinna'tus,  273. 

Cin'na,   340. 

Circus  Max'imus,  252,  257,  293,  387. 

Cisal'pine  Gaul,  303,  339. 

Cithas'ron,  107. 

Citizen.  See  "Common  People," 
"Franchise." 

"City  of  God,"  439. 

City-state,  in  Orient,  n;  in  Greece. 
84;  culmination  in  Greece,  141, 
152;  Rome,  246,  254.  342. 

Civilization.     See    "Society." 

Claudius,  375,  377  f. 

Clazom'ena;,    186. 

Cleis'thenes,  1 1 2 ;  his  legislation,  1 1 2  f . 


Cleobulus,  98. 

Cleom'brotus,  125,  187. 

Cleom'enes,  112,  234. 

Cle'on,  164  ff. 

Cleopat'ra,  349,  360. 

Cler'uchi,  156. 

Client,  Roman,  in  early  period,  262; 
in  the  imperial  period,  383. 

Cli'tus,   216. 

Clo'dius,  347- 

Clo'vis,  435  f-,  44i. 

Clu'sium,   271. 

Cni'dos,   185. 

Cnos'sos,  79. 

Code  of  Hammurabi,  30;  of  Moses, 
47;  of  Justinian,  431  f. 

Coinage,  of  Persian  Empire,  62;  in 
Greece,  95,  106,  143;  at  Rome, 
291,  418.  See  "Exchange." 

Colisse'um,  387,  389. 

Collati'nus,  264. 

Colo'ni,  413,  433. 

Colony,  in  Egyptian  Empire,  36;  of 
Phoenicians,  45;  of  Greeks,  89  f.; 
Roman,  285;  Latin,  286;  failure 
at  Rome,  332;  Cassar's  colonies, 
351;  imperial  colonies,  413. 

Col'ophon,  85. 

Comedy,  at  Athens,  in,  167,  235; 
at  Rome,  326. 

Comit'ia,  meeting  of,  296;  under 
empire,  362,  377,  400,  417;  Cur- 
ia'ta,  254,  269;  Centuria'ta,  269, 
285,  332;  Tribu'ta,  277,  283,  285. 
See  "Concilium  Plebis." 
Commerce,  early  Egyptian,  12,  15; 
early  Babylonian,  15,  16;  in  Kas- 
site  Babylonia,  32;  of  Phoenicians, 
44  f.;  of  Damascus.  49  f.;  of  As- 
syria, 51;  of  Mycenaean  age,  78  f.; 
of  later  Greek  middle  age,  85  f., 
90  f.;  at  Athens,  in,  zai;  pre- 
dominance of  Athens  in,  133, 142  f., 
157;  how  regarded  in  Greece,  82, 
144;  of  Ptolemaic  Kingdom,  331  f.; 
Rome's  commercial  position,  251; 
Etruscan,  256;  attitude  of  early 
Romans  toward,  290;  develop- 
ment of  Roman,  301,  331,  341  f. 


470 


General  Index 


Com'modus,  397,  399  f. 

Common  people,  in  ancient  East,  17; 

in  Greece,  137, 141,  152;  at  Rome, 

254,  322,  369,  384.     See  "Assem- 
blies." 

Concil'ium  Ple'bis,  276  n. 
Connu'bium,  277,  286  n. 
Co'non,   185. 
Con'stantine,  419;  his  achievements, 

420  S. 

Constantinople,  420  f.,  432,  435. 
Constan'tius,    elder,    416;  younger, 

423- 
Con'sul,  268,  274,  278,  283,  318,  347, 

362,  375,  417- 
Consular  tribunes,  278. 
Co'ra,  88. 
Corcy'ra,  102,  159. 
Corfin'ium,  339. 
Corinth,  85,  86,  90, 101  f.,  122,  134, 

154,  159,  204;  destroyed  by  Rome, 

316;  colony  at,  341. 
Coriola'nus,  273. 
Coronei'a,   185. 
Cor'sica,  301,  303. 
Cosmogony,    in    ancient    East,    24; 

Greek,    96;      Roman,    390.     See 

"World." 

Council.    See  "Senate." 
Cras'sus,  327,  343  f-,  346,  350,  360. 
Crem'era,  272. 
Cres'cens,  387. 
Crete,  71,  77,  79. 
Crce'sus,  King  of  Lydia,  59,  91. 
Cro'ton,  90. 
Cunax'a,  184. 
Cu-ne'i-form,  20. 

Curies,  254.    See  "Comitia  curiata." 
Cu'rials,  433. 
Curia'tii,  255. 
Cur'sus  hono'rum,  331  n. 
Cu'rule,  321. 
Cyb'ele,  330. 
Cy'lon,  108. 
Cy'me,  90,  257. 
Cynosceph'alae,  312. 
Cyp'rian,  415. 
Cy'prus,  44,  79,  86,  155. 
Cyp'selus,  101. 


Cyre'ne,  90. 

Cyrus,  of  Persia,  59,  61,  212;  the 

younger,  176, 184  f. 
Cyz'icus,  90, 177. 

Da'cia,  a  province,  401,  412. 

Da'cian  war,  401. 

Damas'cus,  43,  49;  overthrow,  54; 
Mohammedan,  435. 

Dari'us,  I,  organizer  of  Persian  Em- 
pire, 62,  64  f.;  II,  176,  184;  III, 
214  f. 

David,  of  Israel,  48. 

Deb'en,  18. 

Debt,  law  of,  in  ancient  East,  18;  in 
Greece,  108  f.;  at  Rome,  275. 

Dec'archy,  181. 

Deceb'alus,  401. 

Decele'a,  175. 

Decem'viri,  276,  278. 

De'cius,  412. 

De'cius  Mus,  299. 

Decu'rions,  433. 

De'lian  Confederacy,  organization 
of,  132  f.;  growth  of  Athenian 
power  in,  134  f.;  becomes  an 
Athenian  Empire,  156  f. 

De'los,  amphictyony  of,  94;  Apollo 
at,  in ;  treasury  of  De'.ian  League, 

133- 

Del'phi,  Apollo's  oracle  at,  90, 93;  in 
Persian  wars,  118,  122. 

De'me,  112. 

Deme'ter,  88,  98,  150. 

Democracy,  rise  of  Greek,  100,  103; 
Solon's  service  to,  no;  develop- 
ment at  Athens,  113.  120,  122;  in 
the  Greek  world,  136;  the  Athe- 
nian democracy  described,  137  f., 
152;  its  defects,  167, 179;  at  Rome, 
307;  in  time  of  the  Gracchi,  335  f.; 
struggles  with  the  senate,  336  ff. 
See  "Assemblies,"  "Common  Peo- 
ple." 

Demos'thenes  (general),  164  f.,  175; 
(orator),  202  f. 

Dena'rius,  291. 

Deportation,  53. 

Devo'tio,  299. 


General  Index 


471 


Dia'na,  259. 

Dicas'teries,  138. 

Dictator,  272,  273,  280,  349. 

Di'ocese,  417. 

Diocle'tian,  416  ff. 

Dionys'ia,  in,  149. 

Dionys'ius  I,  183,  188;  II,  188,  195. 

Diony'sus,  88;  religion  of,  98;  at 
Athens,  in;  at  Rome,  330. 

Diplomacy,  meaning  of,  37  n. 

Dispa'ter,  259. 

Domit'ian,  379  f.,  396. 

Dorians,  migration,  80;  organiza- 
tion, 82;  colonies,  80:  Dorus  and, 

93- 

Dra'co,  109. 

Drama.     See  "Theatre." 
Dress)  in  ancient  East,  22;  at  Rome, 

292,  296;  in  imperial  Rome,  386. 
Drink,  in  ancient  East,  22. 
Dru'sus,  339. 
Dy'archy,  358  n.,  400. 
Dynasty,  12  n. 

Ecclesi'a,  of  Athens,  137.  See  "As- 
semblies." 

Ecbat'ana,  60,  214. 

E'domites,  7. 

Education,  in  ancient  East,  55,  63; 
in  Greece,  146, 152;  at  Rome,  295, 
325.  384,  391- 

Egypt,  physical  features,  5;  first 
kingdoms,  12;  empire  of,  33  ff. 
(organization,  36;  ruling  classes, 
37  f.;  splendor,  38  f.);  under  As- 
syrian sway,  52;  conquered  by 
Persia,  62;  Greeks  visit,  91;  re- 
volts from  Persia,  120;  Athenian 
expeditions  to,  155;  conquered  by 
Alexander,  213  f.;  kingdom  of 
Ptolemies,  223,  231  ff.;  gradual 
reduction  under  Rome,  238,  311, 
314;  under  Augustus,  361  n.;  un- 
der Nero,  378.  See  "Alexandria." 

Eighteenth  dynasty,  34  f- 

Ek'ron,  46  n. 

E'lamites,  home,  7;  invade  Baby- 
lonia, 12,  54;  conquered  by  As- 
syria, 52. 


El'be,  365,  371. 

Ele'giac  poets,  95. 

Eleu'sis,  99,  150. 

E'lis,  106,  136. 

Empire,  meaning  of,  29  n.  See  " Im- 
perialism." 

Engineering,  Egyptian,  23;  Roman, 
389. 

En'nius,  326,  330. 

Epaminon'das,  187  ff. 

Eph'esus,  85. 

Ephial'tes,  137,  139. 

Eph'ors,  105. 

Epic  poetry,  Babylonian,  20;  Greek, 
87,  93;  Roman,  366. 

Epicu'rus,  235. 

Eq'uites,  262,  322,  331,  343;  under 
Augustus,  366;  in  first  century 
A.D.,384;  in  second  century  A. D., 
400. 

Eratos'thenes,  233. 

Erech'theus,  85. 

Ere'tria,  85,  118  f. 

Er'os,  88. 

Esarhad'don,  53. 

Es'quiline  hill,  251. 

Etrus'cans,  243;  at  Athens,  157;  at 
Rome,  253,  257;  expansion,  256; 
Roman  wars  with,  270  ff.;  con- 
quest of,  281. 

EurxB'a,  85,  86,  90. 

Euhe'merus,  231. 

Eume'nes,  222  f.;  of  Pergamum,  229, 

3i3- 

Eumol'pus,  85. 

Euphra'tes,  river,  5. 

Eurip'ides,  170  f.,  326. 

Euro'tas,  83. 

Eurym'edon,  136. 

Euse'bius,  422. 

Ex'arch,  442. 

Exchange,  means  of,  in  ancient  East, 
17,  62;  in  Greece,  94  f.,  243;  at 
Rome,  291.  See  "Coinage." 

Fa'bii,  272. 

Fa'bius     Max'imus,    305;      Pictor, 

3*7- 
Fai-yum',  14. 


472 


General  Index 


Family,    in    ancient    East,    19;     in 

Greece,  145  f.;  at  Rome,  253,  293 

ff.;  decline  of,  329;  in  Augustus's 

time,  365'. 
Festivals,  Greek  religious,  98  f.,  in, 

149  f.;  Roman,  258,  386. 
Feudal  government,  in  Egypt,  13. 
Finances,  at  Athens,  153;  at  Rome, 

308;  under  Augustus,  364;  in  later 

empire,  413,  418,  433. 
Fiscus,  364. 

Flamini'nus,  T.  Q.,  312. 
Fla'vian  Caesars,  379  f. 
Food,  in  ancient  East,  22;  at  Rome, 

291    f.,  323;    in    imperial    Rome, 

386. 
Foreigners,  in  Greek  cities,  141,  145; 

at  Rome,  261,  384. 
Forum  of  Rome,  252. 
Fourth  Egyptian  dynasty,  12. 
Franchise,  in  Greece,  103, 113, 192  f.; 

at  Rome,  261  f.,  269,  284,  285,  332, 

336>  339;  extension  of,  by  Caesar, 

351;  by    emperors,    402    f.;  edict 

of  Caracalla,  411. 
Franks,  cross  the  Rhine,  409,  427; 

settle  in  Gaul,  435;  kingdom  of, 

436;  "do-nothing"  kings,  436   f.; 

and  the  pope  of  Rome,  440  f. 
Freedmen  at  Rome,  322,  384;  under 

Augustus,  363;  as  officials  under 

Claudius,  377  f. 
Future  life,  belief  in,  in  Egypt,  26; 

in  Babylonia,  26;   in  Greece,  89, 

98  f.,  196. 

Ga'bii,  257. 

Gabin'ian  law,  343. 

Ga'des,  45. 

Gai'seric,  428. 

Gai'us  (Caligula),  374  f. 

Gala'tia,  229. 

Gal'ba,  378. 

Gale'rius,  416,  419. 

Gath,  46  n. 

Gaugame'la,  214. 

Gaul,  Greek  colonies  in,  90;  Roman 

province  in,  337;  Caesar  in,  347  f.; 

divided  into  provinces,  365 ;  Franks 


enter,  435;  Mohammedans  in,  435, 
437- 

Gauma'ta,  62. 

Gauls.     See  "Kelts." 

Ga'za,  46  n.,  212. 

Ge'lon,  of  Syracuse,  123,  128. 

General.     See  "Strategoi." 

Gens,  253. 

Germans,  enter  Gaul,  347;  cross  the 
Danube,  402;  settled  in  the  Em- 
pire, 412  f.;  how  affected  by  Rome, 
430;  conversion  of,  440. 

Germany,  and  Augustus,  365,  371  f.; 
and  the  Flavians,  381. 

Geron'tes,  105. 

Gil'ga-mesh,  20. 

Gladiatorial  shows,  324,  387. 

Gods,  of  Babylonia,  26;  of  Egypt, 
26;  of  Israel,  41,  47;  of  Assyria, 
55 ;  of  Persia,  64;  of  Greece,  88, 
98;  of  Rome,  259. 

Gordei'um,  210. 

Goths,  cross  the  Danube,  409;  in 
the  Empire,  427.  See  "Ostro- 
goths," "Visigoths." 

Grac'chus.Tib.  Semp.,334  f.;  Gaius, 

335   f- 

Grani'cus,  210. 

Gra'tian,  424. 

Greece,  first  appearance  in  Oriental 
history,  40;  physical  geography, 
70  f.;  relation  of  its  physical  ge- 
ography to  its  history,  70  f.;  peo- 
ple, 73;  outline  of  its  history,  73  f.; 
Mycenaean  age,  77  f.;  middle  age, 
8 1  f.;  age  of  political  adjustment 
and  expansion,  92  f.;  elements  of 
unity,  92  f.;  summary  of  progress 
to  500  B.C.,  115  f.;  significance 
of  victory  over  Persia,  128  f.;  sum- 
mary of  progress  to  supremacy  of 
Philip,  205  f.;  position  in  Alexan- 
der's empire,  220,  223;  revolt  from 
Macedonia,  225;  misfortunes  un- 
der Alexander's  successors,  225 
f.;  rise  of  new  forces,  226  f.;  sum- 
mary of  development  in  third  cen- 
tury, 237  f.;  influence  on  Italy, 
256;  declared  free  by  Rome,  312; 


General  Index 


473 


becomes  Roman,  316;  transfor- 
mation of  Roman  life  by  Greek 
civilization,  323  ff.,  328. 

Greg'ory,  440. 

Gy'ges,  King  of  Lydia,  90. 

Gylip'pus,   174. 

Gymnastics,  146. 

Ha'drian,  397  f.,  401  f.,  404  f. 

Halicar'nassus,  151. 

Ham'ilcar,  303. 

Ham-mu-ra'bi,  king,  30;  laws  of, 
30  f. 

Han'nibal,  in  Spain,  303  f.;  march 
into  Italy,  304;  battles  in  Italy, 
304  ff.;  return  to  Africa,  306; 
death,  313. 

Har'most,  181. 

Harus'pices,   261. 

Has'drubal,  305  f. 

Hebrews,  home,  7;  divisions,  7,  41. 
See  "Israel." 

Heliae'a,  at  Athens,  no,  137  f. 

Hel'len,  and  the  Helle'nes,  93. 

He'lot,  105,  135. 

Hellespont,  90,  in. 

Helve' tii,  347- 

Hephaes'tus,  88. 

He'ra,  88. 

Her'acles,  88,  198. 

Heracli'tus,  97,  169. 

Herac'lius,  435. 

Hercula'neum,  379. 

Heresy,   407. 

Her'mae,  174. 

Her'mes,  88;  of  Praxiteles,  193. 

Her'nici,  270. 

Her'od,  369. 

Her-od'otus,  Greek  historian,  14;  on 
Cyrus,  61;  on  the  Persians,  63;  on 
battle  of  Plataea,  128;  on  Athens, 
132;  his  work,  151;  compared 
with  Thucydides,  170. 

Hes'iod,  92,  95  f.,  98. 

Hezeki'ah,  54. 

Hi'ero,  tyrant,  136;  king,  301. 

Hieroglyph'ics,  20. 

Hime'ra,  128. 

Hippar'chus,  in  f. 


Hip'pias,  in  f. 

Hip'po,  439. 

Hiram  of  Tyre,  48. 

Hit'tites,  home,  7;  invasions,  36; 
kingdom,  36;  Egyptian  wars,  39; 
influence  on  Mycenaean  art,  79. 

Homer,  40,  79,  87,  95,  in,  325. 

Hono'rius,  427. 

Horace,   367. 

Hora'tii,  255. 

Hora'tius  Co'cles,  272. 

Horse,  in  Egypt,  34.     See  "  Cavalry." 

Horten'sian  law,  284. 

House,  in  ancient  East,  21;  in  Greece, 
149;  at  Rome,  291,  323;  in  im- 
perial Rome,  385. 

Huns,  428. 

Hyk'sos,  33,  34. 

Hyrca'nia,  61. 


lam'bic,  95. 

lapyg'ians,  243. 

Iconoclastic  controversy,  442. 

Icti'nus,   150. 

Il'iad,  79,  87. 

Illyrians,  243;  pirates,  238,  303. 

Illyr'icum,  317. 

Impera'tor,  377. 

Imperialism,  in  earliest  history,  n, 
29;  idea  of  universal  empire,  67; 
rise  in  Greece,  130;  its  conflict 
with  the  opposing  Greek  ideal,  162, 
1 86,  191,  201  f.;  defeat  of  Athe- 
nian, 179;  Sparta's  imperial  policy, 
i8if.,  183  f.;  Theban  imperialism, 
188  f.;  revival  at  Athens,  189  f.; 
Isocrates's  view,  196;  achieved 
finally  by  Philip,  203  f.;  Empire  of 
Alexander,  219;  imperialism  of 
his  successors,  223;  of  the  Ptole- 
mies, 232;  Roman,  285  ff.,  309, 
3i4  f-,  33»,  34i  f;  354,  362  f-,  377, 
402, 416  f. 

Impe'rium,  268,  351,  361,  371. 

India,  Darius  I  in,  65;  Alexander 
in,  317;  Syria  loses,  231. 

Indo-European  or  Germanic  family, 
7,  58,  243- 


474 


General  Index 


Industrial  activities,  in  ancient  East, 
15;  in  Phoenicia,  44;  in  Greece, 
82,  142,  144;  at  Rome,  290,  321. 

Interest,  rate  in  Greece,  144. 

Invasions,  of  Babylonia,  12,  32;  of 
Egypt,  335  by  Hittites,  36;  by 
northwestern  peoples,  36,  40,  46; 
by  Arameans,  43;  by  Kaldi,  43; 
of  Greece  by  Dorians,  80;  by 
Galati,  229;  Barbarians  in  Ro- 
man Empire,  401,402, 409  f.,423, 
427  f.,  429,  442;  Mohammedan, 

435,  437- 

I'on  and  lo'nians,  93. 

Ionian  revolt,  118;  cities  to  Persia, 
185  f. 

Iphic'rates,  190,  191. 

Ip'sus,  223  n. 

Iran',  61. 

Ire'ne,  444. 

I'sis,  233,  394. 

Isoc'rates,  196. 

Is'rael,  appearance,  7,  41;  in  Egypt, 
41;  in  the  desert,  41;  settlement 
in  Palestine,  47;  conflicts  with 
Philistines,  46  f.;  organization  of 
kingdom,  47  f.;  empire,  48  f.; 
disruption  of,  49;  kingdom  of 
Israel  in  the  north.  49;  destroyed, 
54- 

Is'sus,  211. 

Ital'ica,  339. 

Italy,  the  name,  287;  physical  geog- 
raphy, 241  f.;  historical  contact 
with  the  East,  240;  peoples,  243; 
historical  geography,  245;  influ- 
ence on  early  Rome,  255  f.;  union 
of  Italy  under  Rome,  285  ff.;  eco- 
nomic decay  of,  320  f.,  334;  under 
Augustus,  362  f.;  under  later  em- 
perors, 403. 

Janic'ulum  hill,  251. 
Ja'nus,  259. 
Ja'son,  87. 

Je-ho'vah,  God  of  Israel,  41 
Jer'ome,  437  f. 

Jerusalem,  capital  of  Israel.  48;  de- 
stroyed by  Nebuchadrezzar,  58; 


visited  by  Alexander,  212;  stormed 
by  Pompey,  345;  by  Titus,  381. 

Jesus  Christ,  369,  394. 

Jewelry,  23,  292,  294,  386. 

Jews,  deported  to  Babylonia,  58  f., 
161;  restored  to  Judea,  212;  and 
Alexander,  213;  the  Maccabees, 
314;  and  Rome,  314;  feeling  toward 
Rome,  315;  subjected  by  Rome, 
345;  Judasa  a  province,  378; 
revolt,  381. 

Joseph  in  Egypt,  38. 

Jose'phus,  33,  212  f. 

Judah,  kingdom  of,  49;  vassal  of 
Assyria,  54;  overthrown,  58. 

Jugur'tha,  336  f. 

Julia,  daughter  of  Julius  Caesar,  346 
f.;  daughter  of  Augustus,  369,  372. 

Julian,  423  f.;  Julian  Caesars,  374  f. 

Ju'no,  259. 

Ju'piter,  256  ff.,  259. 

Justice,  administration  of,  in  ancient 
East,  16, 18,  25, 30  f.,  53;  in  Greece, 
83,  84,  108,  138;  at  Rome,  253  f., 
296  f.;  in  Empire,  403,  411  f.,  431. 

Justin'ian,  431  f. 

Ju'venal,  405. 

Kal'di,  invasion  by,  43;  in  Baby- 
lonia, 54;  victory  over  Babylo- 
nians, 58. 

Karl,  442  f. 

Kar'loman,  441,  442. 

Kar'nak,  38  f. 

Kas'sites,  in  Babylonia,  32. 

Kelts,  7;  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor, 
229;  in  Italy,  244;  at  Rome,  279  f. 

Kha'ti.    See  "Hittites." 

Khu'fu,  23. 

King.    See  "Ruler." 

Knights.    See  "Equites." 

Lab'arum,  422. 

Labyrinth,  14. 

Lam'achus,  174. 

Lamia  and  Lamian  war,  225. 

Land.     See  "Agrarian." 

Laoc'oon,  230. 

La'res,  259. 


General  Index 


475 


Latin  colony,  286. 

Lat'ins,  243,  253;  league  of,  255  f., 
257,  269.  273- 

La'tium,  254  f.;  reduced  by  Rome, 
282. 

Lau'rium,   121. 

Lavin'ia,  254. 

Law,  importance  of,  in  ancient  East, 
18;  international  law  in  Greece, 
94;  lawgivers  in  Greece,  100;  at 
Sparta,  103  n.;  at  Athens,  109, 
137;  Greek  law  at  Rome,  157  f.; 
maritime  law,  227;  early  influ- 
ence of,  at  Rome,  253;  of  Twelve 
Tables,  277;  laws  securing  ple- 
beian rights,  278;  securing  fran- 
chise to  Italians,  339;  conferring 
powers  on  Pompey,  343;  jurists 
under  the  military  Emperors,  411; 
German  laws  as  affected  by  Rome, 
430;  code  of  Justinian,  431  f.  See 
"Justice." 

League,  Peloponnesian,  107;  Delian, 
132  f.;  leagues  in  later  Greek 
history,  226,  230;  Latin,  255,  257, 
269,  273,  281. 

Leb'anon  mts.,  36,  43. 

Legion,  263,  287  f. 

Leo,  pope,  439.  4445  emperor,  442. 

Leon'idas,  124. 

Lep'idus,  360. 

Leuc'tra,  187. 

Libraries,  in  ancient  East,  21;  Ashur- 
banipal's,  55;  at  Athens,  in;  at 
Alexandria,  232;  at  Rome,  352, 

389- 

Licin'i^-Sextian  laws,  283. 

Ligu'rians,  243. 

Li'ris  river,  281. 

Literature,  in  ancient  East,  20;  in 
Egyptian  empire,  39;  in  Assyria, 
55;  beginnings  in  Greece,  86;  de- 
velopment in  Greece  correspond- 
ing to  political  and  social  progress, 
92;  great  names  and  periods  in 
Greece,  129,  149,  151, 167, 170  ff., 
194  ff.,  202,  224  f.,  234  f.;  in 
Alexandria,  232  f.;  beginnings  at 
5,298,299, 326 ff.;  inCsesarian 


period,  352  ff.;  in  Augustan  age, 
366  f.;  in  the  first  century  A.D., 
389  f.;  in  the  second  century,  A. D., 
404  f.;  Christian,  407,  415,  437  ff. 

Liv'ia,  372  f. 

Liv'ius  (Livy),  367.  Andronicus,  326. 

Lom'bards,  441  f.,  443  f. 

Lu'ca,  346. 

Lu'cian,  405. 

Lucil'ius,  327.' 

Lucre'tius,  352. 

Lucullus,  343. 

Lu'di  Sascula'res,  368. 

Lux'or,  38. 

Lycur'gus,  100,  105  n. 

Lyd'ia,  empire  of,  59,  90  f.,  118; 
coinage  of,  95. 

Lyric  poets,  of  Greece,  96,  129;  of 
Rome,  353. 

Lysan'der,  178,  181,  183  ff. 

Lysim'achus,  222  f. 

Mac'cabees,   314. 

Macedo'nia,  Greek  colonies  in,  90; 
Athenian  difficulties  with,  190; 
early  history,  197  f.;  under  Philip 
and  Alexander,  198  f.,  208;  under 
Alexander's  generals,  223,  233  ff.; 
wars  with  Rome,  312  ff.;  Roman 
province,  316. 

Msce'nas,  371. 

Magistrate,  at  Sparta,  105;  at  Ath- 
ens, 108, 137, 139;  at  Rome,  268  f., 
274,  283,  331,  338,  341,  351,  361  f., 

370,  377,  38°,  4i7- 

Magna  Grzecia,  90,  228;  and  Rome, 
282  f. 

Magne'sia,  85,  313. 

Malta,  44- 

Mam'ertines,  301. 

Mamil'ius,  273. 

Man'etho,  is  n.,  33. 

Manil'ian  law,  343. 

Man»ine'a,  173,  189. 

Manufactures.  See  "Industrial  Ac- 
tivities." 

Marathon,   119  f. 

Marcoman'ni,  409. 

Mardo'nius,  119,  126  f. 


476 


General  Index 


Ma'rius,  Gaius,  337  f.,  340. 

Marriage,  in  ancient  East,  19;  at 
Rome,  293  f.,  392. 

Mars,  259. 

Mar'tial,  391. 

Massil'ia,  90. 

Massinis'sa,  306. 

Maus'solus,  his  tomb,  193. 

Maximian,  416. 

Mayor  of  the  Palace,  436. 

Mec'ca,  434. 

Medes,  rise,  56  f.;  empire  of,  58  f. 

Medicine,  in  ancient  East,  25;  in  im- 
perial Rome,  385  f. 

Mediterranean  sea,  2,  5,  30,  43. 

Medo-Persians,  home,  7. 

Megalop'olis,  189. 

Meg'ara,  85,  90,  152. 

Megid'do,  35. 

Memphis,  12. 

Menan'der,  235. 

Mercenaries,  37. 

Merchants,  in  ancient  East,  17;  in 
Greece,  144;  at  Rome,  290. 

Mesopota'mia,  6;  Roman  province, 
401,  410. 

Messa'na,   301. 

Messe'nia,  wars  with  Sparta,  106. 
136;  alliance  with  Thebes,  189. 

Messi'ah,  369  n.,  394. 

Metau'rus,  306. 

Met'oikoi,   145. 

"Metropolitan,"  414. 

Mi'das,  King  of  Phrygia,  90. 

Migrations.    See  "Invasions." 

Mil'an,  417,  425. 

Mile'tus,  85,  86,  90,  101, 118. 

Milti'ades,  119  f. 

Mi'na,  17. 

Miner'va,  260. 

Mith'ra,  4*4- 

Mithrida'tes,  230,  339  f .,  342  f-.  345- 

Mo'abites,   7. 

Mce'sia,  365. 

Moham'med,  434. 

Moham'medanism,  434  f.,  437- 

Molos'si,  197. 

Monarchy.    See  "Ruler." 

Monas'ticism,  438. 


Money.  See  "Coinage"  and  "Ex- 
change." 

Monks,  438. 

Morality,  in  ancient  East,  13,  18  f., 
30,  47,  63  f.,  67;  in  Greece,  88, 
99,  105,  129,  149  f.,  167,  169,  171, 
195  f.,  235  f.;  at  Rome,  253,  259  f., 
298  f.,  315,  324,  328  f.,  331;  under 
Empire,  365,  383,  391  f.,  406.  See 
"Christianity." 

Mosaic,  389. 

Moses,  41,  47. 

Motives  of  progress  in  Ancient  His- 
tory, 66-68;  expansion,  n,  29, 
34, 162,  246;  conflict  between  East 
and  West,  40;  religion,  34,  47; 
invasion,  12,  32,  33,  43,  82,  128, 
197,  430;  commerce,  15,  17,  44  f., 
52,  256;  wealth,  14,  38;  organiza- 
tion, 62,  362,  418. 

Mu'cius  Scaev'ola,  272. 

Mun'da,  349. 

Municip'ia,  285  n.;  Caesar's  law  for, 
351;  in  Empire,  363,  402. 

Munych'ia,  225. 

Museum  at  Alexandria,  232. 

Music,  Greek,  96,  146. 

Myc'ale,  128. 

Myce'nse,  77. 

Mycenaean  culture,  78  f . 

Mysteries,  98  f.,  150. 

Mytile'ne,  85. 

Na'bu,  55. 

Nae'vius,  326. 

Na'ram  Sin,  29. 

Nar'bo,  337. 

Nar'ses,  431. 

Naucra'ries,  Council  of,  108. 

Nau'cratis,  91. 

Naupac'tus,  154. 

Navy,  102,  121,  155,  176,  212,  302. 

See  "Commerce." 
Nax'os,  135. 
Nebuchadrez'zar,  58. 
Ne'pos,  354. 
Nept'une,   259. 
Ne'ro,  376  f.,  395. 
Ner'va,  397. 


General  Index 


477 


Neus'tria,  436. 

New  Comedy,  235. 

New  Platonism,  414. 

New  Testament,  395. 

Nicae'a,  421. 

Nic'ias,  163,  174  f. 

Nicome'dia,  417. 

Nile,  5. 

Nin'eveh,  51;  fall  of,  57. 

Nip'pur,  n,  32. 

Nobility  at  Rome,  321. 

Nobles,  in  Greece,  141. 

Nome,  13  n. 

Nor'icum,  365. 

No'tium,  177. 

Nu'bia,  14,  34. 

Nu'ma,  255,  259. 

Numid'ia,  306;  war  with,  336. 


Occupations,  of  early  civilized  man, 
14;  of  Greek  middle  age,  82;  of 
early  Romans,  290;  change  in, 
320  f.;  under  the  Empire,  384  f. 

Octa'vius,  359.     See  "Augustus." 

Odova'car,  429. 

Odys'seus,  86. 

Od'yssey,  79,  86,  87,  326. 

Ogul'nian  law,  284. 

Ol'bia,  90. 

Oligarchy,  181.     See  "Aristocracy." 

Olym'pia,  festival  at,  93  f. 

Olympiads,  93. 

Olym'pus,  88. 

Olyn'thus,  186. 

Omen,  260,  296. 

Oracles,  Greek,  93. 

Oriental  world,  physical  features, 
5,  6;  peoples,  6;  survey  of  its  his- 
tory, 8;  its  beginnings,  n;  signifi- 
cance of  its  history,  66-68. 

Or'igen,  415. 

Or'thodoxy,   423. 

Osi'ris,  26. 

Ostracism,  113. 

Os'trogoths,  427,  429,  431. 

O'tho,  378. 

Ov'id,  370. 

Ovin'ian  law,  284  n. 


Pa'dus,  242. 

Paeo'nius,  193. 

Pal'atine  hill,  251,  362,  383  n. 

Palestine,  41;  origin  of  name,  46; 

under  Ptolemies,  232. 
Palmy 'ra,  412  f. 
Panathenae'a,   149  f. 
Pan'dects,  432. 
Panno'nia,  365. 
Pan'sa,  385. 
Papacy,  439  f. 
Papin'ian,  411. 
Papy'rus,  15. 
Parme'nio,  216. 
Par'nes,   107. 
Parthenon,  148  f.,  151. 
Par'thia,  61;  kingdom  of,  231;  and 
Rome,  345  f.,  364  f.,  401;  Sassa- 
nian  dynasty,  409. 

Parties,  in  Athens,  163;  in  Greek 
cities,  192,  226;  rise  at  Rome,  332, 
335- 

Patricians,  253. 
Paul,   395. 

Pausa'nias,  127,   132,  135;    II,  182. 
Pa' via,  442. 
Pel'la,   200. 
Pelop'idas,  187,  189. 
Peloponnesian  League,  founded,  107; 
in  Persian  wars,  123;  and  Athens, 
154;  declares  war,  160. 
Peloponnesian  War,  160  ff. 
Peloponne'sus,  70. 
Pel'tast,   191. 
Pena'tes,  259. 
Perdic'cas,  209,  223  f. 
Per'gamum,  229  f.,  313  f.,  317. 
Perian'der,  98  n.,  101  f. 
Pedicles,   137,  139;  age  of,  143  ff-; 
and  Peloponnesian  War,  160, 162; 
death,  163;  and  the  higher  life  of 
Athens,  168  f. 
Perseph'one,  88. 
Persep'olis,  60,  214. 
Per'seus,  313. 

Persia,  physical  features,  60  f.;  em- 
pire of,  rise,  59,  6 1  f.;  extent,  62; 
organization,  62  f.;  people,  63  f.; 
civilization,  64;  expansion,  65; 


478 


General  Index 


threatens  Greece,  1 18;  expeditions 
against  Greece,  119  f.,  122  f.; 
driven  from  Greece,  128;  from 
the  Mediterranean,  132;  Athenian 
expeditions,  155;  peace  of  Callias, 
155;  reappearance  in  Pelopon- 
nesian  War,  175  f.;  dominating 
influence,  182;  war  with  Sparta, 
185;  condition  at  invasion  of  Al- 
exander, 210;  overthrown  by  Alex- 
ander, 215;  revival  under  Sassa- 
nians,  409,  431;  conquered  by 
Mohammedans,  435. 

Petro'nius,  390. 

Pha'raoh,  title,  12. 

Pharnaba'zus,  176. 

Pharsa'lus,  349. 

Phei'don,  106. 

Phid'ias,  148  f. 

Philip  of  Macedon,  190,  198  ff.;  his 
ideals  and  purposes,  200  f.;  master 
of  Greece,  203  f.;  death,  208;  V, 
234;  allies  with  Hannibal,  238; 
wars  with  Rome,  312. 

Philip'pi,  200,  361. 

Philip'pics,  360  n. 

Philis'tines,  43,  46. 

Philopce'men,  234. 

Philosophy,  early  Greek,  97;  at 
Athens,  168  f.;  in  the  third  cen- 
tury B.C.,  234  f.;  at  Rome,  325, 
331;  under  the  Empire,  392  f.,  406, 
414. 

Philo'tas,  216. 

Phocians,  158,  200. 

Pho'cion,  223. 

Phoenicians,  home,  7;  geography 
of  Phoenicia,  43  f . ;  commerce,  44  f . ; 
service  to  civilization,  45  f.;  em- 
pire of,  45;  influence  on  Italy,  256; 
in  Graeco-Persian  wars,  212. 

Phryg'ia,  90. 

Physical  geography,  influence  on 
history,  14,  71  f.;  245,  250  f., 
420. 

Pi'etas,  261. 

Pi'late,  394. 

Pin'dar,  129. 

Pin'dus  mts.,  70. 


Pip'pin,  the  elder,  437;  the  younger, 
441. 

Piras'us,  133,  142,  179,  186. 

Pirates,  342  f. 

Pisis'tratus,  nof.,  141. 

Pit'tacus,  98  n.,  100. 

Platae'a,  119,  127. 

Plato,  195  f.,  224. 

Plau'tus,  326. 

Plebei'ans,  254;  struggles  with  patri- 
cians, 275  f.;  victory  over  them, 
283  f. 

Plin'y,  the  elder,  391;  the  younger, 
405  f.,  407. 

Plu'tarch,  405. 

Plu'to,  88. 

Po  river,  242. 

Poly'bius,  314,329. 

Pompei'i,  379,  385,  388  f. 

Pompey,  343  f.;  victories  in  the  East, 
345;  first  triumvirate,  346;  sole 
consul,  347;  conflict  with  Caesar, 
348;  death,  349. 

Pon'tifex,  259,  297,  366. 

Ponton'o-us,  86. 

Pontus,    230;  wars  of   Rome   with, 

339  *•>  343- 

Pope,  439  f.,  442. 

Poplic'ola,  law  of,  278. 

Population,  of  Greek  cities,  141, 
192  f.;  of  Roman  Italy,  285. 

Por'sena,  271  f. 

Posei'don,  88. 

Prae'tor,  268. 

Praetorian  guard,  364,  377,  410. 

Praxit'eles,  193. 

Prefects,  Roman,  286,  364. 

Priesthood,  in  ancient  East,  25;  in 
Egyptian  empire,  37  f.;  in  Greece, 
83,  148;  at  Rome,  259. 

Prin'ceps,  362;  growth  of  power, 
370,  380;  as  tyranny,  377;  house- 
hold organized  by  Claudius,  377  f.; 
increasing  state  of,  383;  imperial 
council  of,  400;  theory  of ,  by  third- 
century  jurists,  411;  transformed 
into  absolute  ruler,  417. 

Pro'bus,  412. 

Proconsul,  318. 


General  Index 


479 


Prophets  of  Israel,  47,  61. 

Provincial  government,  in  Egyptian 
empire,  36;  in  Assyrian  empire, 
53;  in  Persian  empire,  62  f.;  origin 
of  Roman  provincial  system,  308  f.; 
Roman  provinces  in  133  B.C.» 
317;  Roman  provincial  organiza- 
tion, 317  ff.;  trial  court  for  gov- 
ernors, 318,  336;  defects  of,  332; 
importance  of  provinces  to  Rome, 
341;  reorganization  under  Augus- 
tus, 361;  imperial  provinces,  363; 
under  Julian  Caesars,  378;  as- 
semblies, 394;  under  Diocletian, 
417. 

Pryt'any,  113. 

Ptol'emy,  222;    kingdom  of,  231. 

Public  land.    See  "Agrarian." 

Publica'ni,  308  n.,  318,  364. 

Publil'ian  law  (Vol'ero),  278;  (Philo), 
284. 

Pu'nic  wars:  first,  302  ff.;  second, 
303  f.;  third,  316. 

Py'dna,   313. 

Py'los,  164,  166. 

Pyramids,  12,  23,  24,  97. 

Pyr'rhus,  of  Epirus,  227;  in  Italy 
and  Sicily,  228  f.,  283. 

Pythag'oras,  97. 

Quass'tor,  274. 
Quintil'ian,  391. 
Quir'inal  hill,  25,  253. 
Quran',  434. 

Ram'ses  II,  36,  39,  41;  III,  36,  46. 

Rau'dine  plains,  338. 

Raven'na,  429,  442. 

Re,  Egyptian  god,  26. 

Red  sea,  12,  41. 

Regil'lus,  battle  of  Lake,  273. 

Reg'ulus,  303. 

Religion,  in  ancient  East,  25-27,  67; 
of  Israel,  47,  67;  of  Assyria,  55; 
of  Persia,  63  f.;  of  early  Greece, 
87  f.;  influence  of  Zeus  and  Apollo 
in,  93  f.;  Greek  problems  of,  96; 
progress  of,  as  related  to  growth 
of  civilization,  98  f.;  in  ^Lschylus, 


129  f.;  influence  of  Greek  philos- 
ophy on,  1 68  f.;    theory  of  Euhe- 
merus,  231;    Oriental  cults,  233; 
Stoicism  and  Epicureanism,  234  f.; 
of  early  Rome,  258  f.,  261,  298  f.; 
decline  of,   330  f.;  revived  under 
Augustus,  366;    in  the  first  cen- 
tury   A.D.,    393  f.;     of     Severus 
Alexander,    411;     in    third    cen- 
tury, 413  f.      See  "Christianity." 
Re'mus,  254. 
Rex  sacro'rum,  263  f. 
Rhs'tia,  365. 
Rhetoricians    at    Athens,    167;     at 

Rome,  325,  385. 
Rhodes,  League  of,  227;  and  Rome, 

313  f- 

Ric'imer,  428. 
Roman  Church,  414  f.,  439  f.    See 

"Papacy." 

Rome,  origin,  246,  254;  summary 
of  history,  246  ff.;  geography,  251 
f.;  union  of  peoples  in,  253;  a  city- 
state,  254;  early  legends  of,  254  f.; 
influence  of  Italy  on  its  origin,  255 
f.;  under  Etruscan  kings,  257  ff. 
261  ff.;  political  reorganization  by 
Servius,  262  f.;  overthrow  of  king- 
ship, 264;  struggle  with  neighbors, 
268  ff.;  struggles  of  patricians  and 
plebeians,  274  ff.;  the  Keltic  ter- 
ror, 279  f.;  its  result,  281;  ex- 
pansion in  Italy,  281  ff.;  victory 
of  plebeians,  283  f.;  rise  of  dis- 
tinctions of  wealth  and  office,  284 
f.;  organization  of  Roman  Italy, 
285  f.;  Roman  society  and  man- 
ners, early  period,  200  ff.;  rela- 
tions to  Carthage  and  wars,  301  ff.; 
explanation  of  Roman  success  in 
wars  with  Carthage,  306  f.;  early 
embassy  to  Greece,  157;  war  with 
Magna  Graecia and  Pyrrhus,  a  28  f.; 
early  complications  with  Greek 
world,  238;  attitude  toward  East- 
ern powers,  314;  wars  with  Mace- 
donia, 312  f.;  with  Syria,  313; 
Rome  an  imperial  state,  314  ff.; 
society  and  manners  under  Greco- 


480 


General  Index 


Oriental  influence,  320  ff.;  politics 
as  thus  transformed,  394  ff.;  era 
of  party  struggles,  334  f.;  victory 
of  Caesar,  349;  a  world-empire, 
357  ff.;  under  Augustus,  360  ff.; 
under  Julian  Caesars,  374  f.;  fire 
at,  376;  under  Flavian  Caesars, 
379  f.;  society  and  manners  in  the 
first  century  A.D.,  383  ff.;  under 
the  constitutional  emperors,  397  ff.; 
under  the  military  emperors,  409  ff . ; 
city  fortified,  412;  under  the  Des- 
potism, 416  ff.;  rivalled  by  Con- 
stantinople, 420;  captured  by 
Alaric,  427;  by  Gaiseric,  429;  and 
the  Roman  Church,  414  f.,  439  f.; 
division  into  Eastern  and  Western 
Empire,  427;  fall  of  Western  Em- 
pire, 429;  influence  on  the  bar- 
barians, 430;  revival  under  Jus- 
tinian, 431  f.;  influence  of  Eastern 
Empire,  432;  decline  after  Jus- 
tinian, 433;  Mohammedan  at- 
tacks, 435;  passing  of  Empire  with 
Charlemagne's  accession,  444  f. 

Rom'ulus,  254  f. 

Rom'ulus  Augus'tulus,  429. 

Roxa'na,  216,  222  f. 

Ru'bicon,  349. 

Ruler,  in  ancient  East,  16,  68;  in 
Egyptian  empire,  37;  in  Persian 
empire,  64;  in  early  Greece,  78, 
82;  in  Sparta,  83;  the  Greek 
tyrant,  101;  king  at  Athens,  107  f.; 
divinity  of,  23 1 , 368;  king  at  Rome, 
254,  263;  in  Roman  Empire  (see 
"Princeps");  absolute  monarch, 
416  f.;  Prankish  king,  435  f.; 
caliphs,  435. 

Sabellians,  243. 
Sa'bines,  253,  255,  270. 
"Sacred  Band"  of  Thebes,  187. 
Sacred  War,  200,  202. 
Sagun'tum,  304. 
Sal'amis,  109,  125  f. 
Sal'lust,  353- 

Sama'ria,  49;  destroyed,  54. 
Samar'itans,  213. 


Sam'nites,  243;  Roman  wars  with, 
281  f. 

Sa'mos,  85,  177. 

Samuel,  47. 

Sapph'o  (Safo),  96. 

Sardin'ia,  Phoenicians  in,  44;  Car- 
thaginians in,  301;  Romans  take, 
3°3- 

Sar'dis,  59. 

Sar'gon  of  Agade,  n;  his  library, 
21 ;  his  empire,  29;  of  Assyria,  53. 

Sassa'nians,  409. 

Sa'trap,  62. 

Saturna'lia,  386. 

Saul,  47. 

Saxons,  440. 

Scaav'ola,  Mucius,  272;  the  jurist, 
327- 

Science,  in  ancient  East,  24,  67;  in 
Greece,  95  f.;  at  Rome,  297,  390  f. 

Scip'io,  Pub.  Cor.,  306;  L.  C.,  313; 
influence  of,  328  f.,  331. 

School.     See  "Education." 

Scribe,  in  ancient  East,  20. 

Sculpture,  in  ancient  East,  24,  39; 
Assyrian,  55;  Greek,  149,  193;  at 
Rome,  297;  portrait  statues,  389. 

Scythians,  invade  the  east,  59;  Da- 
rius I  attacks,  65,  118. 

Sea  power,  176,  302. 

Seja'nus,  375. 

Seleu'cus,  222  f.;  kingdom,  230,345; 
era  of,  230. 

Sem'ites,  origin  and  home,  6;  dis- 
tribution, 6;  passing  of  their  pow- 
er, 59. 

Senate,  Greek,  82  f.,  105,  108,  no, 
113,  137;  Roman,  origin,  254; 
early  history,  269;  practical  dom- 
inance of,  284,  308;  and  the  no- 
bility, 322 ;••>•  tmmerce  forbidden 
to,  331;  strflggle  with  the  democ- 
racy, 335  f.;  failure  in  adminis- 
tration, 336;  legally  supreme  un- 
der Sulla,  341 ;  conflict  with  Cassar, 
348  f.;  reorganized  by  Caesar,  351; 
joint  rule  with  Augustus,  361; 
Augustus  reorganizes,  366;  and 
Julian  Cffisars,  377;  and  Flavian 


General  Index 


481 


Caesars,  380  f.;  and  constitutional 
emperors,  400;  and  military  em- 
perors, 410;  under  absolute  mon- 
archy, 417. 

Sen'eca,  376,  390,  393. 

Sennach'erib,  53;  and  Judah,  54. 

Senti'num,  282. 

Septim'ius  Seve'rus,  410  f.,  413. 

Ser'apis,  233. 

Serto'rius,  342  f. 

Ser'vius  Tul'lius,  257,  262. 

Ses'tos,  128. 

"Seven  against  Thebes,"  87. 

"Seven  Wise  Men"  of  Greece,  98. 

Seve'rus  Alexander,  411. 

Shek'el,  17. 

Shir-pur'la,   n. 

Sib'yl,  261. 

Sic'ily,  Phoenicians  in,  44;  Greek 
colonies  in,  90;  in  Persian  wars, 
123;  democracy  in,  136;  Syracuse 
and  Athens,  i74ff.;  empire  of 
Dionysius,  183;  events  after  its 
fall,  227  f.;  Carthage  and  Rome 
in,  301  f.;  Roman  Province,  309; 
slave  wars  in,  332. 

Sic'yon,  107. 

Sige'um,  109. 

Silver  Age,  390. 

Si'na-i,  12,  34. 

Sino'pe,  90. 

Sixth  Egyptian  dynasty,  12. 

Slavery  and  Slaves,  in  ancient  east, 
17;  in  Egyptian  empire,  38,  40;  in 
Greece,  145;  at  Rome,  321,  322, 
332,  342,  384,  386,  393;  coloni,  or 
serfs,  413,  433- 

Slavs,  7,  431. 

Social  war,  339. 

Society,  organization  in  ancient  East, 
16;  in  early  Grt  e,  81  f.,  87;  in 
Athens  in  age  of  .'ericles,  147  f., 
152;  in  early  Rome,  290  ff. ;  trans- 
formation, 321  f.,  328  ff.;  at  Rome 
under  Augustus,  365  f.,  369  f.;  clas- 
sification of,  at  Rome  in  first  cen- 
tury A.D.,  383  f.;  in  the  second 
century  A.D.,  405  f.;  in  the  third 
century,  412  f. 


Soc'rates,  171  f.,  194. 
Soissons',  441. 
Solomon  of  Israel,  48  f. 
So'lon,  lawgiver  of  Athens,  100,  109; 
his  legislation,    109    f.;    outcome, 
141. 

Sophi'a,  St.,  church  of,  431. 
Soph'ists,  167. 
Soph'ocles,   149  f. 

Spain,  Phoenicians  in,  44;  Greeks 
in,  90;  Carthaginians  in,  301, 
3031.;  becomes  Roman,  306;  Ro- 
man wars  in,  316;  under  Augus- 
tus, 365;  Mohammedans  in,  435. 

Spar'ta,  primitive  organization,  83  f.; 
development  of  culture  and  its 
suppression,  104;  Spartan  char- 
acter, 105;  final  organization  of 
political  system,  105;  expansion, 
106;  headship  of  Peloponnesian 
League,  107;  in  alliance  against 
Cyrus,  S9»  i<>7;  »n  Persian  wars, 
131  f.;  jealousy  of  Athens,  135; 
trouble  with  Messenians,  136; 
growth  of  oligarchy,  136;  com- 
plications with  Athens,  154  f.; 
war  with  Athens,  160  ff.;  fifty 
years'  peace  signed,  166;  victory 
over  Athens,  177;  terms  of  peace, 
179  f.;  imperialistic  programme, 
iSiff.;  war  with  Persia,  185;  peace 
of  Antalcidas,  185  f.;  Sparta  su- 
preme, 1 86;  revolt  of  Thebes, 
187  f.;  later  history,  223,  234. 

Spar'tacus,  342  f. 

Sphacte'ria,  165. 

Spu'rius  Cas'sius,  269,  274  f.;  Mse'- 
lius,  274. 

Sta'tius,  390. 

Stil'icho,  427  f. 

Sto'i>:ism,  234;  at  Rome,  392  f. 

Strat'egoi,  at  Athens,  113,  uof., 
139;  in  later  Leagues,  226. 

Succession,  problem  of,  in  Roman 
Empire,  372,  380,  400,  410,  416  f. 

Sue'vi,  437- 

SuHa,  L.  C.,  338,  340;  his  adminis- 
tration, 341;  its  failure,  343. 

Sulpi'cius,  340. 


482 


General  Index 


Su'sa,  60,  215. 

Syb'aris,  90. 

Syracuse,  founded,  90;  Gelon,  tyrant 
of,  123;  wars  with  Carthage,  123, 
182  f.,  227  f.;  Hiero,  tyrant  of,  136; 
democracy  in,  136;  Athenian  ex- 
pedition against,  174  f.;  under 
Dionysius  I,  183;  Hiero,  king  of, 
301;  complications  with  Rome, 
301,  3°5- 

Syr'ia,  5;  under  Babylonian  sway, 
30;  under  Egyptian  sway,  35; 
empires  of,  43-50;  under  Assyrian 
sway,  52  f.;  Syrian  kingdom  of 
the  Seleucidae,  223;  splendor,  230; 
complications  with  Rome,  312  f.; 
becomes  a  Roman  province,  345. 

Tac'itus,  404  f. 

Talent,  17. 

Tan'agra,    155. 

Taren'tum,  90,  228;  treaty  with 
Rome,  282;  war  with  Rome  and 
submission,  283;  revolt  and  subju- 
gation, 305. 

Tarquin'ii,  257. 

Tarquin'ius,  Priscus,  257;  Superbus, 
257,  261,  264,  271,  273. 

Tar'shish,  45. 

Tar'sus,  211. 

Taxes,  in  ancient  East,  16  f.,  37  f., 
48,  53,  62;  Athenian,  145,  153; 
Roman,  285,  313,  318;  imperial, 
364,  433- 

Ta-yg'etus  mts.,  106. 

Teaching  at  Rome,  384  f. 

Te'gea,  106. 

Tel-el-amar'na  letters,  37. 

Temple,  in  ancient  East,  23;  in  Egypt, 
38;  of  Solomon,  48;  at  Athens, 
148;  at  Rome,  366,  368. 

Ten  Commandments,  47. 

Ter'ence,  326. 

Tertullian,  407,  415. 

Tet'ricus,  412. 

Teu'tones,  337. 

Teutonic  peoples.   See  "Germans." 

Tha'les,  97. 

Thap'sus,  349. 


Tha'sos,  135. 

Theatre,  at  Athens,  in,  149,  152; 
at  Rome,  293,  324  f.,  388. 

Thebes  (in  Bceotia),  in  Persian  wars, 
1 1 8, 122;  rises  against  Sparta,  187; 
imperialistic  ideal  of,  188;  failure, 
189;  real  achievement,  189;  de- 
stroyed by  Alexander,  209. 

Thebes,  capital  of  Egypt,  13,  34,  38. 

Themis'tocles,  121,  123,  126,  133, 
!3S- 

Theoc'ritus,  232. 

Theod'oric,  429  f. 

Theodo'sius,  423  f.;  penance  of,  425. 

Theog'nis,  96. 

Thermop'ylae,  123  f. 

The'seus,  84. 

Thes'pis,  in. 

Thessaloni'ca,  425. 

Thes'saly,  tyrants  of,  189. 

Thirty,  at  Athens,  181  f. 

Thrace,  Greek  colonies  in,  90; 
Roman  province,  378. 

Thrasybu'lus,  101. 

Thucyd'ides,  the  historian,  170;  on 
founding  of  Athens,  84  f. 

Thucyd'ides,  son  of  Mele'sias,  156. 

Thu'rii,   157. 

Thut'mose  III,  35. 

Ti'ber,  242. 

Tibe'rius,  372,  374  f- 

Ti'bur,  404. 

Tici'nus,  304. 

Tiglathpile'ser  III,  52  f. 

Tigra'nes,  345. 

Ti'gris,  river,  5. 

Timoc'racy,  103. 

Timo'leon,  227. 

Timo'theus,  190. 

Tissapher'nes,  176,  178. 

Ti'tus,  379  f. 

To'ga,  292,  296. 

Tours,  437. 

Trades,  in  ancient  East,  15;  at 
Rome,  290.  See  "Industrial  Ac- 
tivity." 

Tradition,  meaning  of,  29  n. 

Tra'jan,  397  f.,  401,  403. 

Trap'ezus,  90. 


General  Index 


483 


Trasime'nus,  304. 

Treaty,  Ramses  and  Hittites,  36; 
Greek,  155  f.,  179,  185  £.;  Roman, 
282,  286,  301,  303,  306,  312  f. 

Tre'bia,  304. 

Tribal  system,  82,  253,  436. 

Tribe,  at  Rome,  253,  262,  285,  332. 

Tribo'nian,  432. 

Trib'une,  origin,  275  f.,  transfor- 
mation, 277;  history,  334;  Augus- 
tus as,  361  f.,  366. 

Tribute.     See  "Taxes,"  "Province." 

Tri'remes,  102. 

Triumph,  288  f. 

Trium'virate,  334;  first,  346;  second 
360. 

Trojan  war,  40,  79,  87,  254. 

Troy,  77. 

Tul'lus  Hostil'ius,  255. 

Twelfth  Egyptian  dynasty,  13. 

Twelve  Tables,  law  of,  277,  296. 

Tyrants,  of  Greece,  101  f. 

Tyre,  44, 48;  siege  by  Alexander,  212. 

Tyrrhe'nian  sea,  256. 

Ul'pian,  411. 
Um'brians,  243,  282. 
Umbro-Sabellians,  243. 
University,  Alexandria,  232;  Athens, 

234- 
Ur,  ii. 
Utica,  45- 

Vale'rian,  412. 

Vale'rio-Horatian  laws,  278. 

Van'dals,  427  f.,  431. 

Var'ro,  354. 

Va'rus,  371. 

Vei'i,  271  f. 

Ven'eti,  243. 

Ve'nus,  259. 

Ver'gil,  characterizes  Romans,  233; 

works,  366  f. 

Vespa'sian,  378  f.;  and  senate,  380. 
Ves'ta,  259. 
Vesu'vius,   379. 
Vim'inal  hill,  251. 


Viria'thus,  316. 

Vis'igoths,  427  f.,  431,  435  f. 

Vitel'lius,  378. 

Vol'sci,  270,  273,  281. 

Vul'can,  259. 

Vul'gate,  438- 

Warfare,  means  of  expansion,  ir; 
development  in  Egypt,  34,  37;  of 
Philistines,  46;  in  Persia,  62  f.; 
naval,  102;  at  Athens,  108;  at 
Marathon,  119;  new  tactics  of 
Epaminondas,  187  f.;  Greek  de- 
velopment in,  191  f.;  Macedonian 
army,  199;  tactics  of  Alexander, 
210  f.,  214,  217,  219;  army  at 
Rome  under  Servius,  262  f.;  de- 
velopment and  reorganization, 
287  f.;  reforms  of  Marius,  338; 
army  under  Augustus,  363;  army 
supreme  in  Roman  Empire,  409; 
improvements  by  Diocletian,  418. 

Wealth.     See   "Capitalism." 

Woman,  in  ancient  East,  19;  in 
Greece,  145  f.;  at  Rome,  294,  386, 
392- 

World,  ideas  of,  in  ancient  East,  24; 
in  Greece,  96;  in  Rome,  390  f. 
See  "Cosmogony." 

Worship.     See  "Religion." 

Writing,  materials,  15;  systems  of, 
19;  in  Greece,  95;  in  Italy,  256. 

Xenoph'anes,  97. 

Xen'ophon,    184;  on   Leuctra,   187; 

his  works,  194  f. 
Xer'xes,  120,  122  f.,  126. 

Zachari'as,  441. 

Za'gros  Mts.,  60. 

Za'ma,  306. 

Zela,  349- 

Ze'no,    philosopher,    234;  emperor, 

429. 

Zeno'bia,  412. 
Zeus,  88  f.,  93. 
Zo'roaster,  64. 


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